European Criminal Law

Juvenile delinquency constitutes a multifaceted social and legal phenomenon shaped by a wide range of structural, environmental, and individual factors. Family-related problems, poverty, inequalities in access to education, migration and rapid urbanization, negative peer influence, digital addiction, and substance abuse are among the most prominent determinants that increase children’s vulnerability to criminal behavior. Within this framework, children who come into conflict with the law are not perceived merely as offenders but as individuals in need of protection, guidance, and rehabilitation. This perspective is rooted in the recognition that children, due to their developmental stage, lack the full capacity to comprehend the legal consequences of their actions to the same extent as adults. Consequently, modern legal systems position children within a distinct framework in criminal justice, emphasizing their developmental needs and prioritizing their best interests. The conceptualization of children as “children pushed into crime” rather than “offenders” reflects a paradigm shift in criminal justice systems, highlighting a rights-based and child-centered approach. This shift is strongly supported by both national legislation and international legal instruments, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Accordingly, juvenile justice systems aim not to punish but to rehabilitate and reintegrate children into society. Within this rehabilitative framework, probation emerges as one of the most significant mechanisms, serving as an alternative to custodial sanctions and embodying the principle that deprivation of liberty should be used only as a measure of last resort. Probation, as a criminal justice measure, enables the execution of sanctions under supervision within the community rather than through incarceration. In the context of children, probation plays a crucial role in maintaining the child’s connection with family, education, and social environment while simultaneously ensuring accountability and behavioral regulation. It provides a structured yet flexible mechanism through which children can fulfill specific obligations, such as continuing formal education, attending vocational training programs, refraining from contact with certain individuals or visiting certain places, undergoing treatment for substance addiction, or receiving psychological counseling. These obligations are designed not only to prevent reoffending but also to strengthen the child’s social ties, support personal development, and foster a sense of responsibility. The primary aim of this study is to examine the institution of probation as applied to children in conflictwith the law within the Turkish juvenile justice system, with a particular focus on its legal framework,practical implementation, and effectiveness in achieving rehabilitative outcomes. The study seeks toevaluate whether probation fulfills its intended function as a child-friendly mechanism and to identifystructural and practical challenges that hinder its effective operation. The findings of the study revealthat, despite its strong normative foundation and rehabilitative orientation, the probation system inpractice faces significant structural and operational challenges. One of the most critical issues is theinsufficient establishment of specialized juvenile courts across the country. In the absence of adequatelydistributed juvenile courts, children are often tried in general criminal courts alongside adults, whichcontradicts the principles of child-friendly justice and undermines the protective function of the juvenilejustice system.Another major challenge concerns the lack of adequately trained and specialized personnel. The shortageof psychologists, pedagogues, and social workers significantly weakens the rehabilitative dimension ofprobation. As a result, individualized supervision plans tailored to the specific needs and risk factors ofeach child cannot be effectively implemented. Moreover, probation officers are often burdened withexcessive caseloads, limiting their capacity to provide meaningful guidance, monitoring, and support.This situation reduces probation to a formal obligation rather than a substantive rehabilitative process.Family involvement emerges as another critical factor influencing the effectiveness of probation.Although the system envisages active participation of families in the rehabilitation process, in practice,family engagement remains limited. Factors such as parental indifference, lack of awareness, anddysfunctional family environments significantly hinder the success of probation measures. Despiteefforts by probation officers to involve families, these attempts are often insufficient to ensuresustainable behavioral change and social reintegration for the child.Furthermore, probation plays a crucial role in preventing the stigmatization of children. By avoidingincarceration, children are less likely to be labeled as “criminals,” which facilitates their socialacceptance and reintegration. The preservation of family ties and continuity in education furthercontribute to reducing the risk of marginalization and exclusion. Through individualized supervisionand support mechanisms, probation addresses the underlying social and environmental factors thatcontribute to delinquent behavior, thereby offering a more holistic and sustainable solution. Inconclusion, probation constitutes one of the most important alternatives to custodial sanctions withinthe juvenile justice system. Its child-centered and rehabilitative nature enables it to make significantcontributions both at the individual and societal levels. However, the effectiveness of probation dependsnot only on its legal framework but also on its practical implementation. Strengthening institutionalcapacity, increasing the number of specialized juvenile courts, enhancing the quality and quantity ofprofessional staff, and ensuring active family participation are essential for improving the system’sfunctionality.  Ultimately, a well-functioning probation system has the potential to transform the position of childrenwithin the criminal justice system by promoting a humane, rights-based, and rehabilitative approach. Inthe Turkish context, further development and reinforcement of the probation system are of strategicimportance, not only for preventing juvenile delinquency but also for safeguarding social peace, publicsecurity, and the future of society as a whole.Keywords: Juvenile Justice, Probation, Rehabilitation, Social Reintegration, Child Protection, BestInterests of the Child.

The article examines the legal framework governing the termination of criminal proceedings during the pre-trial phase. Particular attention is paid to the powers of the prosecutor to terminate proceedings, the legal nature of the termination order, and the procedural guarantees for judicial review. The study analyzes the rights of the accused and the injured party in relation to appeals against termination decisions and discusses the procedural consequences arising from such acts.

Ι. Σύλληψη και κράτηση
ΙΙ. Το πρόβλημα
ΙΙΙ. Αυτόφωρο έγκλημα, αυτόφωρη διαδικασία και πρόσωπα ειδικής δωσιδικίας: Επισκόπηση
ΙV. Η κρίση του Εισαγγελέα
V. Η συνάντηση της ειδικής δωσιδικίας με την αυτόφωρη διαδικασία
VI. Θεσμική αμηχανία: Αστυνομία, εισαγγελία και νομοθετική πρωτοβουλία
VII. Σύγκρουση ισότητας και αναλογικότητας
VIII. Παρεπόμενα ερωτήματα
ΙΧ. Τελικές παρατηρήσεις

This post provides a comprehensive introduction to the issue of environmental crime, with a focus on the perspective of EU legislation in combating this phenomenon. The introduction presents a wide range of challenges associated with environmental crime and its impact on the environment and public health. In the next section, environmental crime is defined from the perspective of criminal law in the Slovak Republic. The post then addresses the most common and serious forms of committing environmental crime. The focus then shifts to the use of modern technologies, particularly unmanned aerial vehicles and available methods such as LiDAR and photogrammetry, as effective tools for detecting and investigating illegal activities. In the final part, the current challenges and future prospects in the fight against environmental crime are identified.

France with African countries, 9 Poland with developing countries, 0 Spain with Latin American states," as well as those between Eastern European and Western countries. 2 Two draft agreements are also taken into consideration." The purpose of a transfer scheme is to enable prisoners to be returned to the country with which they have genuine ties-whether ties of nationality or of long residence strengthened by family or social ties. Determining which prisoners should be entitled to be repatriated with S. See the United States prisoner transfer treaties concluded with the following countries:

France with African countries, 9 Poland with developing countries, 0 Spain with Latin American states," as well as those between Eastern European and Western countries. 2 Two draft agreements are also taken into consideration." The purpose of a transfer scheme is to enable prisoners to be returned to the country with which they have genuine ties-whether ties of nationality or of long residence strengthened by family or social ties. Determining which prisoners should be entitled to be repatriated with S. See the United States prisoner transfer treaties concluded with the following countries:

The article examines the legal nature and characteristics of the amendment of the accusation as a procedural institution in criminal proceedings. It emphasizes the fundamental role of the right of defense and the requirement that the accused be fully informed of the factual and legal framework of the charges. The study analyzes the conditions under which an amendment of the accusation is necessary, particularly in cases of substantial changes in the factual circumstances or legal qualification. Attention is also paid to the limitations of such amendments and their relation to the guarantees of a fair trial in accordance with Bulgarian criminal procedure law and the case law of the Supreme Court of Cassation.

Positieve verplichtingen tot effectieve inzet van het strafrecht brengen voor ernstige mensenrechtenschendingen verschillende eisen mee waaraan strafrechtelijk onderzoek en vervolging moeten voldoen. Deze eisen zijn in toenemende mate onderwerp van discussie in Nederlandse strafzaken. As Nederland feitelijk als enige in staat is om effectief strafrechtelijk op te treden, bijvoorbeeld bij een weigering van uitlevering, of als verzochte rechtshulp bepalend is voor effectief buitenlandse onderzoek naar de meest ernstige misdrijven, kan handelen geboden zijn ter verzekering van de rechten van slachtoffers.

This paper tries to trace some theoretical paths of correlation between European Union law and legal education. First, the contribution outlines the possible meanings of legal education and the relationships that these can establish with the dimension of the European Union. In this sense, a fundamental perspective is the one that links legal education and the European Union within a philosophical question on the meaning of law. Based on these reflections, secondly, the article analyses the theoretical dimensions that theoretical reflection on the EU can open regarding the distinction between ‘law in books’ and ‘law in action’, crucial for reflections on legal education. Finally, the text analyses the role that legal education can play (together with EU law and philosophical perspective) to outline a figure of jurist who has the critical habitus as one of his fundamental and essential elements.

This article examines the rights of crime victims to be informed about their rights and about the progress of criminal proceedings. The analysis focuses on procedural guarantees for victims within the criminal justice system and the obligation of competent authorities to provide timely and effective information. Special attention is paid to the protection of victims’ procedural rights and to the role of information as a prerequisite for effective participation in criminal proceedings.

Original title: Предпоставките за конституирането на пострадал в досъдебното производство
This article aims to analyze the conditions for the constitution of the injured in pre-trial proceeding. Attention is paid to the concept of "injured" and argues that the same is subject to criminal proceedings. Studied are all prerequisites for the constitution of the injured.

The intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm by a criminal on a victim in a manner that amounts to torture and torment must be characterized by actions that cause exceptionally severe suffering to the victim. This should have indicated to the judicial panel that the criminal had committed a particular cruelty toward the victim, as well as a clear indication of his heightened social danger.

The paper critically analyses deportation practices involving Polish citizens who, after committing a crime in Poland, left the country without serving their sentence and settled in other EU member states. Building on the literature on deportation practices, which are seen as a technique of population management defining modern citizenship, the paper discusses the European Arrest Warrant (EAW) as a "reverse deportation". It examines how Polish authorities use the EAW against Polish citizens to interrupt their stay in an EU member state and force them to return to Poland. We argue that these practices exemplify "contingent EU citizenship" (Coutts 2020) by limiting the rights of certain categories of people (in this case, those with a criminal conviction) who cannot fully exercise their right to stay in another EU country. Consequently, their status in these countries is only temporary and conditional. Finally, the article addresses resistance to these practices.

This paper analyses Case C-802/23 (Criminal Proceedings against MSIG), the first CJEU ruling to apply the ne bis in idem prohibition under Article 54 CISA and Article 50 CFREU in the context of cross-border terrorism prosecutions. The case arose before Spain's Audiencia Nacional, where a former senior ETA leader convicted in France for membership in a terrorist association faced prosecution as the alleged direct perpetrator of the 1997 Oviedo attack. The CJEU confirmed on 11 September 2025 that the idem condition requires identity of material acts, not of legal classification, and that Article 50 CFREU admits no terrorism exception. Spain's enactment of LO 4/2024, which removed the categorical exclusion of EU prior convictions under LO 7/2014, rendered three of the four referred questions moot, constituting a rare instance of proactive legislative compliance. In December 2025, the Audiencia Nacional acquitted the accused on both ne bis in idem and evidentiary grounds. The paper argues that by delegating factual determination to national courts, the ruling leaves a structural ambiguity that may invite further references in multi-jurisdictional terrorism cases.

Keywords: ne bis in idem; Article 54 CISA; Article 50 CFREU; cross-border terrorism; material identity of acts; LO 4/2024; preliminary ruling procedure

La notion de « preuve ». Dans son sens le plus commun, la preuve s'entend comme « ce qui montre la vérité d'une proposition, la réalité d'un fait ». Dans le cadre d'un contentieux judiciaire, la preuve a pour fonction utile d'emporter la conviction du magistrat par la démonstration de l'existence d'un fait juridique. En raison de son rôle fondamental dans le traitement des contentieux, son administration est encadrée. L'encadrement de l'administration de la preuve. En matière pénale, « hors les cas où la loi en dispose autrement, les infractions peuvent être établies par tout mode de preuve 1 ». Toutefois, la chambre criminelle de la Cour de cassation a opéré une distinction entre l'autorité publique, soumise à un principe de loyauté de la preuve, et les particuliers, pour lesquels l'administration de la preuve n'est subordonnée à aucune condition 2 . En matière civile, la preuve peut également « être rapportée par tout moyen 3 » hors les cas où la loi en dispose autrement. Une distinction s'opère ici entre les faits juridiques, pour lesquels la preuve est libre, et les actes juridiques d'une valeur supérieure à 1 500 euros, dont la preuve doit être préconstituée par un écrit. Objet de l'étude. Dans les cas où la preuve est libre, et de jurisprudence constante, les parties ne pouvaient rapporter de preuve déloyale ou illicite. Nonobstant une jurisprudence abondante ancrée dans les pratiques, l'arrêt rendu par la Cour de cassation, alors réunie en assemblée plénière, en date du 22 décembre 2023, opère un revirement majeur de jurisprudence (I). En ce sens, la haute juridiction ne prohibe plus l'administration de la preuve déloyale en matière civile, dès lors que cette dernière est strictement nécessaire et son administration proportionnée aux droits antinomiques. La présente contribution vise à analyser, consécutivement à ce revirement, le rapprochement imparfait (II) des régimes probatoires civiliste et pénaliste dans les hypothèses où la preuve est libre. Rapprochement imparfait tout d'abord, car la solution pénaliste ne se trouve pas entièrement transposée dans le régime civiliste. Les hauts magistrats conditionnent l'admissibilité de la preuve déloyale en matière civile à un contrôle de proportionnalité opéré par le juge, entre la nécessité de la preuve et les droits antinomiques en présence. En matière pénale cette nécessité est présumée au regard des rapports de force entre les parties. En outre, l'admissibilité de la preuve déloyale dans ces deux types d'instance ne répond pas à une même logique. 1 Code de procédure pénale, article 427. 2

This article examines the development of minimum standards for the protection of victims of crime within the European Union, with particular focus on Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA. It analyses the key principles introduced by the Framework Decision, including the right of victims to participate in criminal proceedings, to receive information, and to obtain protection and support. The study also explores the extent to which these standards have been implemented in national legal systems, highlighting existing disparities and practical challenges. Particular attention is paid to the limitations of the Framework Decision and the need for further harmonisation. The article concludes that, although it represented an important step in strengthening victims’ rights, additional legislative development at EU level was necessary to ensure effective and uniform protection.

This article examines the European standards governing the application of the principle of mutual recognition to financial penalties and confiscation orders among European Union Member States. It analyses the legal framework regulating the recognition, execution, and transmission of decisions on confiscation or seizure, as well as decisions imposing financial sanctions. Particular attention is paid to the implementation of these instruments in Bulgarian legislation and the conditions under which they are applied in practice. The study highlights key challenges related to cross-border enforcement, legal certainty, and procedural safeguards, and emphasises the importance of effective judicial cooperation within the EU criminal justice system.

This paper examines the European standards governing the application of the principle of mutual recognition of decisions imposing procedural coercive measures other than detention within the European Union. It focuses on alternative measures to pre-trial detention and analyses the legal framework facilitating their cross-border recognition and enforcement among Member States. Particular attention is paid to the balance between effective judicial cooperation and the protection of fundamental rights. The study highlights the importance of mutual trust, proportionality, and procedural safeguards in ensuring the proper functioning of these instruments within EU criminal justice.

This paper examines the European Investigation Order (EIO) as a key instrument for cross-border cooperation in criminal matters within the European Union. It analyses Directive 2014/41/EU and its implementation in national legal systems, focusing on the principle of mutual recognition and the balance between efficiency and procedural safeguards. Particular attention is paid to the rights of suspects and victims, as well as to the challenges arising from differences in national procedural frameworks. The study also explores relevant judicial practice and identifies practical obstacles affecting the effective use of the EIO. It argues that, despite its potential to enhance cooperation, the EIO requires more consistent application and improved coordination among Member States to ensure both effectiveness and protection of fundamental rights.

This paper examines the legal framework and practical implementation of the European Protection Order (EPO) as an instrument for safeguarding victims of crime in cross-border situations within the European Union. It analyses Directive 2011/99/EU and its relationship with Directive 2012/29/EU, highlighting the role of mutual recognition in ensuring continuity of protection measures across Member States. Particular attention is paid to procedural challenges, including delays, differences in national legal systems, and limited awareness among practitioners. The study also considers relevant case law and national practices, identifying gaps in the effective protection of victims. It argues that despite its potential, the European Protection Order remains underutilised and requires improved coordination, training, and harmonisation to achieve its objectives.

This article examines the evolving relationship of mutual trust and fundamental rights in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice. The ECJ has long prioritized the effectiveness of instruments based on mutual trust through an unimpeded system of mutual recognition. Arguments based on a violation of fundamental rights were taken to contradict the presumption of compliance, refute mutual trust, and hinder automatic mutual recognition. The ECJ has now accepted, both in criminal and asylum law, that the presumption of compliance is not conclusive and mutual trust is not blind. The article observes an emergent, but carefully controlled dynamic of rights-based assessment through case-by-case analysis, illustrating three phases of mutual trust, but argues that this dynamic is slow, unclear and inadequate. It suggests that national authorities should take a proactive role, promoting real and constructive relationships of trust, allowing an individual assessment of rights violations via ri...

The paper examines the impact of the principle of proportionality on the European Arrest Warrant (EAW). The only function of proportionality discussed here concerns the mutual recognition context. The argument is stated against the backdrop of overemphasis of the principle of mutual recognition for the purpose of fast-track judicial cooperation in criminal matters to the detriment of fundamental rights protection. This paper explores the recent case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) affirming the need to secure the operation of the mutual recognition and secondly the debate on overusing the instrument. It provides an analysis of the quest for a proportionality based approach in the context of mutual recognition where fundamental rights protection is competing with fast-track judicial cooperation.

Stockholm Programme emphasized the importance of a more effective identification, confiscation and re-use of criminal assets. Before getting into these issues, we review the different stages of construction of the European area of freedom, security and justice in order to contextualize from a legal and political point of view the measures taken in recent years.

This paper analyses special protection measures for vulnerable victims of crime within the framework of EU law, with particular focus on Directive 2012/29/EU. It examines procedural safeguards, individual assessment mechanisms, and challenges in national implementation. The study identifies gaps between normative standards and judicial practice and argues for a more effective, victim-oriented approach in criminal proceedings.

The paper contributes to ongoing research on victims’ rights, compensation mechanisms, and judicial cooperation in EU criminal law.

This paper examines state compensation for victims of crime in the European Union, with a particular focus on the Bulgarian legal framework. It analyses key challenges related to access to compensation, protection of vulnerable victims, and procedural efficiency.

The study adopts a comparative perspective, including references to neighbouring jurisdictions such as Serbia, and highlights structural weaknesses in national systems. It argues for a more coherent, victim-oriented, and digitally supported approach at both national and EU level.

Il contributo offre un commento alla sentenza della Corte di giustizia del 18 dicembre 2025, resa nella causa C-325/24, Bissilli. La pronuncia fornisce un contributo all’interpretazione della direttiva 2014/41/UE relativa all’ordine europeo di indagine (OEI), con specifico riferimento all’audizione in videoconferenza di un imputato detenuto in un altro Stato membro e presenta particolare interesse sotto tre distinti profili. In primo luogo, distinguendo tra finalità principale e finalità meramente accessoria dell’atto richiesto, la Corte contribuisce a delimitare l’ambito oggettivo dello strumento. In secondo luogo, la decisione chiarisce il coordinamento tra le disposizioni della direttiva relative ai motivi di non riconoscimento e non esecuzione dell’OEI, precisando la diversa funzione degli artt. 10, 11 e 24 e ribadendo che il rifiuto di esecuzione costituisce un’eccezione di stretta interpretazione rispetto alla regola del mutuo riconoscimento. In terzo luogo, la pronuncia valorizza la videoconferenza quale modalità di cooperazione istruttoria transfrontaliera idonea a coniugare esigenze di efficienza e celerità con il rispetto delle garanzie processuali, in linea con l’orientamento della Corte europea dei diritti dell’uomo.

The purpose of our research was twofold: to research the Cuban legal system as it functions internally, and to examine Cuba’s position under international law. Within this broader scope, this group’s specific focus was on the role of popular consultation in both the Cuban Penal Code and the penal process. We were particularly interested in how forms of popular participation manifest not only in legislative drafting but also in the day-to-day administration of justice. Individuals engaged in preliminary research for this project, including extensive study of Cuba’s history, its post-revolutionary political development, its law, and its legal institutions. While in Cuba recently, we met with Cuban civil society members and legal professionals, including popular assembly representatives, attorneys, judges, professors, and law students. These exchanges offered invaluable insight into how the Cuban legal system operates in practice and how legal professionals within Cuba understand the function of law in a socialist society. By highlighting mechanisms of popular consultation within the penal code and penal process, we aim to provide research into how Cuba conceptualizes the law not merely as a technical apparatus but as a site of citizen participation and social accountability. This work is divided into five papers. Since the focus was penal law, each paper was researched and drafted by a group with at least one criminal law practitioner.

The recent Russian-Ukrainian conflict is characterized by hegemonic
issues that are present in International Law. One of these refers to the adoption of autonomous sanctions and collective countermeasures to address violations of erga omnes obligations. This aspect has recently been characterized by the adoption of measures by Russia and China, defined as "countersanctions". These measures prima facie appear to take on the nature of a countermeasure, but a more in-depth analysis, as set out here, highlights that these take on the character of a response to the disproportionate effects of the sanctions to protect their national economy. The following contribution exposes the main issues of similar measures in the light of International Law, highlighting above all the aspects of lawfulness that derive from them.

Si l’utilisation de la visioconférence en matière de procédure judiciaire est envisagée
comme un moyen de bonifier l’accessibilité et la célérité de la justice pénale, il n’en demeure pas moins que le recours exponentiel à ce dispositif technique soulève des questions complexes sur l'équité du procès, remettant en question des garanties fondamentales du procès pénal, notamment le droit de l’accusé d’être défendu par un avocat et son droit à l’égalité des armes. Au Maroc, utilisée comme palliatif pour contrer l’apparition subreptice de la Covid-19, la visioconférence est jusque-là d’usage quoiqu’elle ne soit réglementée par aucun texte.

peut être connu, sans recherches approfondies (et qui ne correspond pas nécessairement à la réalité) » 9 . Le droit se porte souvent au secours des personnes qui se sont fondées sur les apparences à leur propre détriment 10 . Il est possibl sserter, par métonymie, que « l apparence est source de droit » 11 . La en droit est à la base de la 12 , dont le but est de protéger les personnes ayant faussement cru en l apparence d une situation juridique 13 . Cette théorie, qui permet de faire prévaloir le fait sur le droit 14 , apparaît comme « un filet de sécurité tendu au profit des contractants en général » 15 . Le concept est utilisé dans plusieurs branches du droit, telles que le droit de la famille, le droit des successions, le droit des biens, le droit des contrats, le droit cambiaire, 9 G. CORNU (dir.), Vocabulaire juridique, 12 e éd. mise à jour, Paris, PUF/Humensis, coll. « Quadrige », 2018, v Apparence, n 2. 10 Comme en matière de mandat apparent ou de propriété apparente : le mandat andataire investi du pouvoir de passer un contrat au nom du propriétaire ; la propriété apparente, elle, permet de déclarer un contrat valable et opposable au véritable propriétaire dès lors que celui qui a conclu le bail apparaissait aux yeux de tous comme le propriétaire des biens (P. GARBIT, « D.-»,