Lime Plaster

The present study examines the mineralogical, petrographic and chemical properties of limestone samples collected from Anah and Euphrates formations in western Iraq. The aim is to evaluate the limestone rocks of the Anah and Euphrates formations in the area between Anah and Al-Qaim towns, Western Iraq, for quicklime production. Analytical methods, including X-ray diffraction, thin section petrography, and chemical composition tests, were employed, in addition to the laboratory calcination and reactivity experiments conducted at 900, 1000, and 1100 °C. Four representative samples were collected from several locations within the two formations to evaluate the efficiency of conversion to lime. The chemical analysis confirmed existing high CaO content, particularly in Anah samples, supporting their suitability for quicklime production. Petrographic analysis highlighted variations in texture, from crystalline to fossiliferous and peloidal fabrics, which directly influenced reactivity. On the other hand, calcination experiments indicated that complete decomposition of CaCO₃ into CaO was achieved between 1000 and 1100 °C, with the optimum reactivity observed at 1000 °C. These findings emphasize the importance of controlling raw material quality and firing temperature to ensure efficient production of high-quality quicklime. This research contributes to the industrial utilization of Iraqi limestone and supports the sustainable exploitation of local raw materials. The study recommends that three sites, including Khazga Anah, Ancient Anah and Mashhad Euphrates, as the main source for lime production in the construction and chemical industries in the Western Desert.

Fresco painting (al fresco) is one of the oldest and most durable mural techniques. Although mosaic art is more resilient, it does not strictly fall within the category of painting. Christianity adopted the ancient technique of fresco painting for the depiction of religious themes on walls shortly after its emergence. After the Great Schism between Eastern and Western Christianity (1054 AD), Western art gradually began to diverge from the common fresco method practiced until then, adopting less demanding variations such as the giornata technique. In these methods, the wet plaster layer is thin, the paint layers superficial, and pigments are fixed with organic binders applied onto the thin plaster surface-a hallmark technique of the Renaissance. In contrast, the Eastern tradition largely maintained its adherence to ancient practices, employing thicker layers of fresh plaster, pronounced and thick paint layers (impasto), and the use of organic agents to retard drying and enhance the vividness of colors-characteristics of Byzantine or Orthodox fresco painting. The scarcity of extensive literature on Byzantine fresco painting, compared to the abundant bibliography on Renaissance frescoes, combined with the decline in its use in Eastern Europe, has created significant gaps in its contemporary application. Consequently, numerous artistic and technical elements that contributed to the perfection of the works have been lost. The aim of the present study is the comprehensive revival of Byzantine fresco painting, in order to preserve the high aesthetic and technical excellence that characterized its peak period (9th-15th centuries AD). Specifically, it investigates the use of plenty organic materials in plasters and pigments, given that recent physicochemical analyses as Raman spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, etc., have identified protein-based organic compounds not only on the surface but also in deeper layers of ancient monumental frescoes. Drawing upon forty years of field experience, we present effective practices intended to strengthen efforts for the preservation of Byzantine fresco painting and to prevent its irreversible loss, which would constitute a significant blow to art and culture.

Fresco painting (al fresco) is one of the oldest and most durable mural techniques. Although mosaic art is more resilient, it does not strictly fall within the category of painting. Christianity adopted the ancient technique of fresco painting for the depiction of religious themes on walls shortly after its emergence. After the Great Schism between Eastern and Western Christianity (1054 AD), Western art gradually began to diverge from the common fresco method practiced until then, adopting less demanding variations such as the giornata technique. In these methods, the wet plaster layer is thin, the paint layers superficial, and pigments are fixed with organic binders applied onto the thin plaster surface-a hallmark technique of the Renaissance. In contrast, the Eastern tradition largely maintained its adherence to ancient practices, employing thicker layers of fresh plaster, pronounced and thick paint layers (impasto), and the use of organic agents to retard drying and enhance the vividness of colors-characteristics of Byzantine or Orthodox fresco painting. The scarcity of extensive literature on Byzantine fresco painting, compared to the abundant bibliography on Renaissance frescoes, combined with the decline in its use in Eastern Europe, has created significant gaps in its contemporary application. Consequently, numerous artistic and technical elements that contributed to the perfection of the works have been lost. The aim of the present study is the comprehensive revival of Byzantine fresco painting, in order to preserve the high aesthetic and technical excellence that characterized its peak period (9th-15th centuries AD). Specifically, it investigates the use of plenty organic materials in plasters and pigments, given that recent physicochemical analyses as Raman spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, etc., have identified protein-based organic compounds not only on the surface but also in deeper layers of ancient monumental frescoes. Drawing upon forty years of field experience, we present effective practices intended to strengthen efforts for the preservation of Byzantine fresco painting and to prevent its irreversible loss, which would constitute a significant blow to art and culture.

Fresco painting (al fresco) is one of the oldest and most durable mural techniques. Although mosaic art is more resilient, it does not strictly fall within the category of painting. Christianity adopted the ancient technique of fresco painting for the depiction of religious themes on walls shortly after its emergence. After the Great Schism between Eastern and Western Christianity (1054 AD), Western art gradually began to diverge from the common fresco method practiced until then, adopting less demanding variations such as the giornata technique. In these methods, the wet plaster layer is thin, the paint layers superficial, and pigments are fixed with organic binders applied onto the thin plaster surface-a hallmark technique of the Renaissance. In contrast, the Eastern tradition largely maintained its adherence to ancient practices, employing thicker layers of fresh plaster, pronounced and thick paint layers (impasto), and the use of organic agents to retard drying and enhance the vividness of colors-characteristics of Byzantine or Orthodox fresco painting. The scarcity of extensive literature on Byzantine fresco painting, compared to the abundant bibliography on Renaissance frescoes, combined with the decline in its use in Eastern Europe, has created significant gaps in its contemporary application. Consequently, numerous artistic and technical elements that contributed to the perfection of the works have been lost. The aim of the present study is the comprehensive revival of Byzantine fresco painting, in order to preserve the high aesthetic and technical excellence that characterized its peak period (9th-15th centuries AD). Specifically, it investigates the use of plenty organic materials in plasters and pigments, given that recent physicochemical analyses as Raman spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, etc., have identified protein-based organic compounds not only on the surface but also in deeper layers of ancient monumental frescoes. Drawing upon forty years of field experience, we present effective practices intended to strengthen efforts for the preservation of Byzantine fresco painting and to prevent its irreversible loss, which would constitute a significant blow to art and culture.

The investigation into earthen construction technologies and materials is now acknowledged as a crucial area requiring further research. Earthen mortars are prevalent in both modern and traditional construction due to the abundance of earth material, their favorable thermal properties, and their low embodied energy. The objective of this study is to support the use of natural materials collected from north Jordan to enhance the mechanical properties and durability of mud mortar. The local soil was stabilized using Oil Shale Ash (OSA), Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), and lime for producing mud mortar. Particle size analysis, plastic limit, liquid limit, XRD, and XRF were applied to assess the geotechnical characterization and mineral composition of the earthen stabilizers and local soil. In order to examine the mechanical properties (specifically compressive strength) and durability characteristics (such as water absorption and shrinkage) of mud mortar, a total of 8 mixtures were prepared. One of these mixtures served as a control, while the others were created by substituting soil with varying proportions of OSA, cement, and lime. The results show that the mud mortar contained 10% OSA and 10% cement, which exhibited the highest compressive strength. Moreover, an increase in the proportion of OSA in the soil led to a decrease in absorption and linear shrinkage, indicating that OSA is an effective stabilizing agent for mud mortar.

Read the Open Access publication at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-05844-x 

Recent excavations at the Phoenician coastal site of Tell el-Burak, a large-scale agricultural production centre in use during 725-350 BCE, have uncovered the first Iron Age wine press in Lebanon. This discovery enabled a systematic, interdisciplinary study of its plaster, offering insights into ancient construction technologies. The analysis extended to two other plastered installations found in separate rooms within the complex, allowing for a comprehensive comparison. An integrated program of archaeometric analysis, including optical microscopy in polarising light, X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetry, and organic residue analysis, was applied to samples from these three structures to investigate plaster composition and technological variability. Previous studies identified the use of crushed ceramic fragments in a lime-based plaster. Now, new analyses provide deeper insights into the nature of the binder, revealing how the addition of ceramic sherds may have enhanced the plaster's mechanical properties and hydraulicity, making it a significant early example of hydraulic mortar. These findings confirm the existence of a local, innovative tradition of lime-plaster manufacture in southern Phoenicia. This investigation not only sheds light on the specific technological practices of Tell el-Burak, but also contributes to the broader understanding of Phoenician and Punic technological advancements in the Iron Age Mediterranean.

Students were given an exercise to design a 1bhk residence with their choice of material and sustainable construction technique. The objective was to extend the experience of delivering low-cost housing using eco-friendly material that satisfies all functional needs, Customizing interior furniture’s is also included. The choice of the following construction technique was offered to the students.

1.    Earthbag construction
2.    Timber construction
3.    Wattle and Daub technique-mud house
4.    CSEB  block construction

The first season of excavations at Kh. es-Suwweida in northern Israel revealed strata from the late Iron Age IIA consisting of a series of massive fortification walls, rooms and internal compartments with potential floors. A microarchaeological investigation was undertaken to add high-resolution contextual and compositional data to the field evidence and characterize site formation processes, construction materials and technologies, and use of environmental resources. We applied a micro-archaeological approach to study sediments and archaeological materials via micromorphology, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and micro-spectroscopy, and phytolith and pollen analysis. Two main construction technologies were identified: lime plasters produced from mixtures of pyrogenic lime and non-pyrogenic crushed chalk, and mudbricks prepared from sedimentary materials. An in situ lime constructed floor with multiple re-plastering and activity zones associated with the remains of a degraded mudbrick structure was reconstructed in one locality, and a collapsed burnt lime and mudbrick building with a wooden superstructure was reconstructed in another locality. The micro-archaeobotanical analyses identify domesticated barley, the cultural utilisation of grasses on-site, and a hinterland vegetation of open fields. The combined microarchaeological evidence enables a more detailed reconstruction of the variability in construction technologies and the sequence of collapse and degradation processes in an Iron Age settlement.

Mechanical and durability properties of several lime plasters were studied. Effect of synthetic or natural fibres was investigated. The use of natural fibres is functional to the reduction of tensions. The sisal and kenaf fibres can be a valid alternative to polymeric ones.

The Lin Yimu's tomb in Zhejiang Province, China, is a significant Qing Dynasty tabia structure that, despite relatively good preservation, has suffered damage from weathering, necessitating urgent restoration. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive scientific analysis of archaeological samples from the tabia of Lin Yimu's tomb, employing a range of analytical techniques including X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), chemical methods, and measurements of hardness and strength. Analytical results revealed that the main phases of the sample are calcite, quartz, illite/mica, feldspar, with a minor presence of Tung oil. The proportion of calcium carbonate is approximately 27%, and the ratio of earth to sand is 1:2, suggesting a raw material formula mass ratio of lime-earth-sand of 3:4:8. The surface hardness of the sample is measured at 293 ± 15 HL, with a compressive strength of 5.5 ± 0.2 MPa. The sand used in the raw material has a medium particle size of 250 μm, while earth particles are predominantly around 17 μm. The sample exhibits a porosity of 27.5%, with pore sizes concentrated at 95 nm. These findings contribute significantly to our understanding of Qing dynasty tomb construction technologies and provide a solid scientific basis for the restoration of such historical sites.

Eine Theorie der Machbarkeit? Giorgio Vasaris Einführung in mehr als drei Künste
Wolf-Dietrich Löhr, Andreas Huth
Eingabeschluss : 13.10.2024

Der material turn hat die kunstwissenschaftliche Forschung in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten um eine beinahe vergessene Perspektive bereichert, Ding-Studien und Objektbiographien ermöglichen neue Zugänge zu den Werken, Kooperationsprojekte mit Restaurator:innen und Handwerker:innen rücken historische Verfahren und Traditionen mit ihren kognitiven Potentialen sowie Fragen nach artisanal epistemology, nach techné und Arbeit in den Fokus. Auf der anderen Seite zeigt sich die Kunstwissenschaft nach wie vor belastet von romantisch zugespitzten Vorstellungen von Unmittelbarkeits-, Genie- und Original-Ästhetik, die die blendende Isolierung einzelner Künstlerpersönlichkeiten reproduziert. Giorgio Vasaris Viten dienen dieser Sichtweise bis heute als Bezugspunkt und Rechtfertigung, dabei ist den Lebens-beschreibungen mit der kunsttechnologisch-materialkundlichen Introduzione alle tre arti del disegno ein umfangreicher, dezidiert praxisorientierter Abschnitt mit immer-hin 35 Einzelkapiteln vorangestellt, den Vasari selbst als „teoriche“ bezeichnet und auf dessen Informationen er in den Viten immer wieder Bezug nimmt. Trotz neuerer Ansätze ist die Bedeutung der Einführung als ein – vom Autor bewusst gesetztes – Gegengewicht zu seinen ausführlichen Proemien und den Biographien bisher nur wenig untersucht wurden.

Die Sektion soll sich mit Impulsbeiträgen und einer gemeinsamen Diskussion der pluralen Autorität des Machens, dem Geschichtsbild der Praxis sowie den Ökonomien von Zeit und Material in Vasaris Introduzione widmen.

Az alábbiakban bemutatásra kerülő forrásrészlet egy olyan dokumentumból származik, amely Nag)' Lajos király első nápolyi hadjáratának diplomáciai előkészítéséről tanúskodik. 1 Maga a forrás csekély politikatörténeti adalékként szolgál az András herceg halálát megbosszulni készülő hadjárat történetéhez. Igazi értéke abban rejlik, hogy segítségével betekintést nyerhetünk egy 14. századi követ mindennapjaiba, eleven közelségbe hozva ezzel a középkori életet. III. Edward király követének, Walter de Mora domonkos szerzetesnek útiszámlájáról van szó, mely 1346. március 25-től július 13-ig tartó, egész Nyugat-Európát átszelő utazása során keletkezett kiadásait tartalmazza. A számla mindössze egy négy oldalas szöveg egysoros bejegyzésekkel, csak a nagyobb ünnepek -pl. húsvét, pünkösd -időpontjainak megjelölésével. A számla négy részre tagolódik: az étkezésre és szállásra, a lovakra, az öltözködésre, valamint a vízi közlekedésre fordított kiadásokat tartalmazza, angol pénzben feltüntetve. 2 Az alábbiakban csak a követ magyarországi tartózkodására vonatkozó adatokat szólaltatom meg.

Buonamico hat einen Freskenzyklus fast vollendet, der allen gut gefällt -nur das Inkarnat der Figuren ist zu bleich. Nach Vasari erklärt der Maler den Nonnen, »um diesen Mangel zu beheben, könne man nichts anderes tun, als die Farben mit einem guten Vernaccia-Wein anzurühren. Denn würde man damit die Wangen und das andere Fleisch der Figuren berühren, würden sie rot und sehr lebendig gefärbt«. Buonamico weiß nämlich, dass die Äbtissin einen sehr guten Vernaccia für die Messfeier zurückhält. Die leichtgläubigen Nonnen lassen sich von den Argumenten des Malers überzeugen, so dass er während der ganzen Arbeitszeit besten Vernaccia trinken kann. Den Figuren verleiht er selbstverständlich mit normalen Farben ein frischeres und farbigeres Aussehen. 1 Vasari nimmt hier nicht nur eine der vielen Anekdoten über den schlagfertigen Buonamico Buffalmacco auf, die Boccaccio und Sacchetti in ihren Novellensammlungen überliefert haben, um die Gewitztheit des Malers herauszustellen. Mit dem Dialog zwischen Maler und Nonnen thematisiert er auch die Haut-und Fleischdarstellung in der Kunst der Renaissance und deren Anspruch, lebendige Körper so getreu nachzuahmen, dass Kunst und Natur kaum noch zu unterscheiden sind: Zentrales Motiv von Buffalmaccos Scherz ist der Realitätscharakter des gemalten Fleisches. Auch wenn den Nonnen klar ist, dass es den gemalten Figuren an Farbe fehlt, so glauben sie doch, dass ihnen der Wein die Wangen rot färben wird, ganz wie lebendigen Menschen. Des Weiteren ist aufschlussreich, welche Begriffe Vasari hier wählt. Er spricht Daniela Bohde »Le tinte delle carni« Zur Begrifflichkeit für Haut und Fleisch in italienischen Kunsttraktaten des 15. bis 17. Jahrhunderts

Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive spectrometer, petrography and X-ray diffraction analyses were employed to characterize the historic wall plasters from 17th century Shahdara’s tomb, in Lahore (Pakistan). Three types of plaster layers corresponded to different functions and locations. The study focused on the nature, composition, texture and microstructural features of binder (lime) and aggregate (Kankar-carbonate fragments, brick pieces and slag) fractions to understand their technical and historical production. Results indicated that pozzolanic brick and slag fragments developed strong adhesion bonds with the binder, which enhanced the durability of the investigated plasters. These results would help in making materials with similar technical and compositional characteristics to set up a scientific plan for conservation and restoration purposes.

Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive spectrometer, petrography and X-ray diffraction analyses were employed to characterize the historic wall plasters from 17th century Shahdara's tomb, in Lahore (Pakistan). Three types of plaster layers corresponded to different functions and locations. The study focused on the nature, composition, texture and microstructural features of binder (lime) and aggregate (Kankar-carbonate fragments, brick pieces and slag) fractions to understand their technical and historical production. Results indicated that pozzolanic brick and slag fragments developed strong adhesion bonds with the binder, which enhanced the durability of the investigated plasters. These results would help in making materials with similar technical and compositional characteristics to set up a scientific plan for conservation and restoration purposes.

The study of plasters and mortars constitutes a relevant tool in reconstructing the technological knowledge of the workforces at play. Through a multidisciplinary and multiscale approach, this project characterizes selected samples from the Hellenistic-Roman theatre in Nea Paphos (Cyprus), highlighting the characteristics of the raw materials, the productive processes, and the functional properties. Petrographic analysis combined with x-ray diffraction, thermal analysis and scanning electron microscopy allowed to collect a complete set of elemental, mineralogical and chemical data, all essential for the correct characterization of the samples. According to our results, it appears clear that both Hellenistic and Roman workforces were able to exploit all the raw materials locally available, displaying a remarkable knowledgeability on how to enhance the performance of the mortar mixtures creating a durable and resistant material that survived to this day. Our results display how a conscient choice was made in the selection of the typologies of plasters and mortars for the fulfilment of different purposes. Furthermore, natural hydraulic lime (NHL) was identified in association with a water-related structure.

Characterization of mortars and plasters used in historical structures is crucial before conservation interventions in order to propose proper repair materials and avoid any damage caused by material incompatibility. In the present study, mortars and plasters of a Byzantine Church in the ancient city of Stratonikeia dated back to 5 th-7 th centuries were examined in terms of physical/physico-mechanical characteristics and raw materials used by various analytical techniques. Possible use of pozzolanic materials in mortar and plaster samples were investigated by pozzolanic activity tests performed on the aggregates (< 125 µm) and examining the reaction products formed after immersion of these aggregates in a saturated solution of Ca(OH)2. Investigated mortar and plaster samples were found to have relatively low bulk density and high effective porosity. Compressive strength values of mortar samples were found to be in the range of 3.92-4.47 MPa. Binder used in the mortar and plaster samples were assessed to be fat lime. Aggregates of the samples smaller than 125 µm were found to have good pozzolanicity. Formation of pozzolanic reaction products by the reaction of the finer aggregates with Ca(OH)2 were confirmed by the results of SEM-EDX and FTIR analyses.

Adobe is one of the oldest building materials in use and abundantly found everywhere with affordable and reasonable cost. It is basically just dirt that has been moistened with water, sometimes with chopped straw or other fibers added for strength, and then allowed to dry in the desired shape. In addition to being simple and economic, adobe bricks are fireproof, durable, non-toxic, possess low sound transmission levels through walls and provide sufficient thermal mass to buildings. Adobe brick walls are load bearing structures, which can be used to build up to several stories high. Also, adobe bricks have ability to build vaults and domes. In addition to this, adobe bricks afford great flexibility in the design and construction process. They can be simply cut, reshaped and can easily be subjected to opening to be use for building's services. Besides having, these advantages; they have some disadvantages too which can be summarized as follows; moderately low compressive strength, low tensile strength, low scratch resistance and low water resistance. To overcome these defects, additives should be added to the soil to improve its quality and increase its capability to stand against these defects. This paper provides an overview of the mud's additives that are used in different regions of the world, and their enhancement to improve the soil stability, including mineral, Synthetic, vegetable and animal additives. The paper also includes an experimental study that examines the thermal conductivity of mud brick mixed with some additives (plant oil, ash, soap, and cow dung).

Historic lime mortars are complex materials that are often seen to contain lime lumps. The origin of lime lumps is debated and at present no single cause of formation has been agreed upon. An experiment to analyse the production of lime lumps within the early life cycle of a mortar was formulated to clarify this problem. This article presents the background and the early results of the burning and slaking of four selected samples.

Limestone is a basic industrial raw material. It is consumed by 84% in chemical industry, 12% in refractory and road construction and 4% in civil engineering, agricultural applications and iron steel industry and substantial quantity as lime. Limestone as a source of lime should have some specific physical, chemical, mechanical and thermal properties. Furthermore, technological processes for high quality lime production are also very important. In this investigation, chemical composition, physical properties (bulk density, apparent porosity, water absorption rate), mechanical properties (Schmidt strength and Los Angeles Abrassive strength) and thermogravimetric properties (TG-DTA) of limestone samples were determined. The tests were carried out to determine the characteristic properties of limestone for high quality lime production suitable for iron-steel making industry.

Our digital modeling in 3D aims to visualize Neolithic crafted skulls found in the Near East for their preservation and study taking into account both the possibilities of skull deformation in vivo as well as crafting them postmortem. Decapitation and burying or caching human skulls is met already in Palaeolithic contexts. Postmortem cranial crafting by drilling and carving, or modelling with plaster and asphalt using human skulls as basis was practiced in the Near East during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic and Late Neolithic period. The first examples of plastered human skulls were discovered at Jericho in the 1950s, then belonging to Jordan, after which to Israel and now to the Palestinian territories. Similar skulls were later found in various sites in the Near East. The examples digitally reconstructed here include skulls from Göbekli Tepe and Köşk Höyük found in Turkey, from the cave at Nahal Hemar at the Dead Sea in the Judean mountains of Israel and skulls from Jericho in the Palestinian territories. Both drawings and photographs were used in digitally reconstructing the skulls in 3D. The Blender software allowed us to sculpt the complex shape of the skull from a base mesh. Graphic Processing Unit (GPU) rendering sped up rendering thanks to Nvidia graphics cards. UV mapping was carried out for importing the texture. The visualization enabled us to make further anthropological observations. Beside the generally acknowledged Neolithic "skull cult" we also wish briefly to discuss other reasons for the phenomena and practices.

In the last decade, a job blow is looking for a sustainable construction material the pressure for In the last decade, a job blow is looking for a sustainable construction material the pressure for improved construction methods also leads to the search of a new material. The study on natural building construction material starts with the research on cow dung, mud and slaked lime. For an eco-friendly construction and sustainable material. It incorporates the results on a survey which is carried on the different levels from university students and professors to rural and urban people for ecological awareness to benefit the humans and development prospects of this material in India. People were surveyed to know their opinion on the natural construction material available in ecosystem for residential building and can also be used for partition of walls in commercial buildings or skyscrapers.

Historic lime mortars are complex materials that are often seen to contain lime lumps. The origin of lime lumps is debated and at present no single cause of formation has been agreed upon. An experiment to analyse the production of lime lumps within the early life cycle of a mortar was formulated to clarify this problem. This article presents the background and the early results of the burning and slaking of four selected samples.

We have examined 5 different limestones in order to study their behavior i) during calcination at different temperatures (900, 1050 and 1200°C for 30 min) and ii) after hydration of quick limes derived to slaked lime. Quick limes calcined at 900°C show the lower reactivity values. This could be related to the low calcination temperature or to the short calcination time of 30 min which was unable to produce enough lime. The samples calcined at temperatures of 1200°C are less reactive compared to the hydrated limes which were prepared by hydration of quick lime calcined at 1050°C, indicating by parameters such as the (CaO+MgO)Lime, the time required to become the temperature maximum and the reactivity rate. These, probably could be due to crystal growth at relative high temperatures.

This research focuses on the characterization of ancient decorative earthen plaster of India's Pithalkhora group of caves. The restoration strategies being planned for the earthen plaster demand detailed scientific investigation to understand technology and composition so as to prepare matching plaster. The mineralogical, micro-structural and chemical characterization of the earthen plasters have been investigated by analytical tools like petrological microscope, XRF, CHN analysis, laser scattering particle size analyzer, FTIR, XRD, Scanning Electron Microscopy, thermal analyzer (DGA/DTA) as well as on-site observations. A comparative study with nearby sites portrays the earthen plaster of Pithalkhora coarser (silt: 62-100%, sand: 2-2.2%) with traces of clay (0-2%); hence it may be prone to damage by grain breakages. The chemical composition confirms that the aggregates mixed with the earthen plaster belong to that of locally available basaltic origin. SEM studies show addition of quartz and traces of clay (illite and montmorillonite) to augment the flexibility and performance of the plaster. The restoration plaster should be synthesized with aggregates of locally available basaltic rock mixed with slaked lime in addition with rice husk and other vegetal fibres as vegetal additive to overcome the shrinkage of the plaster.

The research examines the building materials of the ancient fortress known as Rocca Vecchia (Old Fortress), in the Gorgona Island, built by the Republic of Pisa and dated to the 13 th century. Particular attention is paid to the composition of the artificial stone materials (bricks, bedding mortars, plasters and renders) in order to better understand and define the different construction phases. The results will be useful from the historical point of view (origin of the raw materials from inside or outside the island) and for the future conservation intervention which, under the auspices of the former director of the jailhouse, will have to involve a group of prisoners who will also have the task of the subsequent maintenance.

Nowadays, the attention about the building sustainability is increasingly emerging, because of the major responsibility of the building field on the environmental degradation: both in terms of energy consumption from non-renewable sources and the raw materials impoverishment. In addition, the level of comfort required by users is growing and the thermal insulation of buildings becomes the key element for the reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions, both in the case of new construction and of the existing ones. The heat load of a building depends on the presence of insulating material which defines the performance of the building envelope. The main purpose of this work is both to introduce the production technology of a new ecofriendly Thermo-plaster and to evaluate its thermal insulation performances, also comparing amongst the most diffused insulation materials available in the market. This new technology, on the contrary of other competitor materials, is completely natural and doesn't use any plastic matters. This new plaster is produced by using a mix of mortar, recycled and natural materials. Amongst the recycled ones we can recall the sawing mud and the glass, among the natural ones we used the Ampelodesmos Mauritanicus (also called diss), which is a perennial plant of the Gramineae family. Increasing the diss fibres percentage improves the thermal benefit. The Proposed plasters have shown thermal performances that can be considered satisfying and competitive compared to other commercially available plasters, analysed through the evaluation of the thermal and dynamics characteristics of four different possible stratigraphic configurations of vertical external walls.

Purpose Climate change, environmental concerns, and economic problems pose challenges to the construction sector in Iran, which must provide affordable solutions while addressing environmental issues. Hence, natural earthen building materials are critically needed to reduce energy-intensive and costly construction practices dramatically. The purpose of this paper is to provide a framework for comparing life cycle assessments (LCA) and life cycle costs (LCC), for load-bearing walls of an single-family affordable housing unit in a desert part of Iran, Ardakan City. Methods To do so, both LCA and LCC for the unit were performed, considering a cradle-to-site perspective. For this purpose, 22 load bearing wall systems are assessed, including 18 stabilized and unstabilized earthen construction techniques, such as adobe, rammed earth (RE), and compressed earth block (CEB), in addition to four conventional wall assemblies of fired brick (FB), autoclaved aerated concrete block (AAC), ceramic block (CB), and concrete masonry unit (CMU). As well as assessing the environmental impact and life cycle costs associated with the life cycle of each wall, the optimal assembly of the wall is also examined. Results Results show that unstabilized earthen walling alternatives have significantly lower environmental impacts than conventional materials. Conclusions Sensitivity analysis indicates that by utilizing local materials to the maximum extent possible, impacts can be further minimized. Considering the results, transportation may even account for a greater proportion of EI than wall components.

The 17th century Mughal mortar and plaster samples were collected from Akbari-Serai (Shahdara) in the city of Lahore, Pakistan. The samples were studied employing chemical, mineralogical and micro-structural techniques consisting of X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The mortars and plasters were based on calcitic lime binder prepared by the calcinations of locally available lime nodules (kankar-CaCO3) from soil horizon, differing in the type and proportion of aggregates used, including crushed bricks, broken kankar pieces, brick kiln furnace slag and a small fraction of siliceous sand. The results showed varying binder aggregate ratio and also indicated different chemical composition according to the function of mortars and plasters in the masonry unit.

Every society is recognised by the cultural practices it
follows and is unique in nature. Amongst all practices art
and craft is the one with a creative pursuit. Though both are
a creative process but the attitude is distinct in philosophy.
Art is perceived as an expression or application of human
creative skill and imagination, in a visual form, such as
painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated
primarily for their beauty or emotional power.

Every society is recognised by the cultural practices it
follows and is unique in nature. Amongst all practices art
and craft is the one with a creative pursuit. Though both are
a creative process but the attitude is distinct in philosophy.
Art is perceived as an expression or application of human
creative skill and imagination, in a visual form, such as
painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated
primarily for their beauty or emotional power.

The Cretaceous shallow marine Gboko limestone, Yandev, Nigeria is a component of the sedimentary fill of the 800 km NE-SW trending Benue Trough, Nigeria. The limestone is made up of thin bedded to massive limestone beds interspersed with laminated grey shale having foraminifera as the dominant fossil. The limestone has both mud supported and grain supported texture, and micrites constitute about 75% of the limestone. Bulk chemical composition analysis of the limestone reveals average CaCO 3 of 92.41% and a range of 77.50%-99.00%. Mineralogical impurities include quartz, dolomite, pyrrhotite, fluorapatite etc. Trace elements concentration analysis was carried out using Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDXRF) spectrophotometry and showed the following trace elements: Mn (841.3 ppm), Sr (444.6 ppm), Fe (470 ppm), Zn (114.6 ppm) and Pb (116.4 ppm). Calcining the limestone in a laboratory muffle furnace at 1050˚C for 90 minutes produced a compact, soft burnt porous and reactive lime that does not crumble into fines. The lime so produced neither meets the requirements of the Steel Making Shop (SMS) of the Ajaokuta Steel Plant nor could it be used in the growing sugar refining industry in Nigeria. It can however be used in the food and the food by-products industry, environmental, agricultural and petroleum industries etc. The raw stone remains a major source of raw materials for cement manufacture for the ever expanding building industry.

The objective of this research work is to study the absorption and dehydration behavior of some clay-sandy plasters reinforced with natural fibers that could be used for straw bale buildings. The plaster materials consisted of soil, sand and chopped straw. Straw is used as a reinforcement fiber for plaster. Three different types of fibers were used; wheat straw, barley straw and sawdust. The dehydration behavior of plaster materials were tested at three different temperatures, 30, 50 and 70°C. The obtained results showed that, the plaster reinforced with fibers dried slower than that without fibers. However, faster drying caused in cracks of the plaster which is not desirable in building surface coating. The moisture absorption rate increased with increasing fibers content and decreased with increased sand content. Moreover, the highest rate of moisture absorption occurred with the plaster reinforced with sawdust. While, the lowest rate of moisture absorption was achieved with the plaster without reinforcement fibers.

The capping of walls left exposed following archaeological excavations of ancient buildings has been found to be an effective way of preserving these structures from further decay as, once excavated, they may be exposed to extremes of weather and the impact of grass, plant and tree growth. The importance of designing capping mortars that have strength, porosity and thermal expansion properties similar to those of the wall stones is emphasized. The previous use of cement for this purpose has proved unsatisfactory. The capping programme described here required consistent production of the mortar mixes and the availability of a local trained workforce. The importance of thorough cleaning of structures before capping, careful tending of mortars immediately after their application, ongoing monitoring of the walls and subsequent removal of intruding vegetation is emphasized. ÖZET Arkeolojik kazılar sırasında ortaya çıkarılan antik duvarların üzerlerini sıvama işlemi, bu yapıları zarardan koruyacak olan en etkili metod olarak düşünülmektedir. Bu yapılar kazıyı takiben, değişik hava koşulları ile ot, bitki ve ağaçlar tarafından verilen çeşitli zararlara uğramaktadırlar. Bu çalışmada, duvarlarda kullanılan taşların dayanıklılık, gözeneklilik ve ısıya bağlı genişleme özelliklerine uygun bir sıva harcının önemine dikkat çekilmektedir. Daha önce sıva harcı olarak denenmiş olan çimentonun uygun bir malzeme olmadığı görülmüştür. Bu makalede yeralan deneysel çalışma, uygun harç karışımları hazırlamayı ve yöresel çalışanları bu konuda eğitmeyi gerektirmiştir. Sıvama işleminden önce duvarların iyice temizlenmesi, harç uygulandıktan sonra kuruyana kadar gözlemlenmesi, duvarların devamlı olarak kontrol altında tutulması ve zarar verici bitkilerin temizlenmesi ön plana çıkarılmıştır.

This paper focuses on the description and characterization of the nature of isotropic and silicon-rich particles observed in plaster samples from the Maya archaeological sites of Calakmul and Lamanai. Based on the composition and morphology of these particles, it is proposed that volcanic ash and glass were incorporated into some of the ancient Maya plasters in order to produce hydraulic reactions. From a technological point of view, the intent on the part of the Maya to produce such reactions is relevant because it would reflect resource planning and complex knowledge of materials. Results also confirm previous reports of the presence of volcanic ash layers at the site of Calakmul and suggest that there were considerable ash falls in the Maya lowlands during Prehispanic times which may have made the material available in many areas of the Central Lowlands. If, as we propose here, volcanic ash was employed in lowland Maya plasters, then the use of volcanic materials by the lowland Maya was more intensive than has been recognized. Our paper also reviews the literature about the use of volcanic materials in lowland Maya materials and suggests future lines of research.

People tend to belong to multiple social circles, which construct and reflect a person's social identity. Group affiliation is embodied and may be expressed by personal adornment. Personal adornment in general has multiple functions in human societies, among them the assimilation and transmission of different aspects of personal and collective, social and cultural identity. Beads in general, including shell beads, often constitute parcels of composite adornment, and as such are used in different configurations to portray these messages. The shared use of similar bead types by different individuals and communities indicates the mutual affiliation of the sharing parties to the same cultural circles and reflects social ties and relationships. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) period in the Levant is a time of pivotal changes to human lifeways necessitating profound adjustments in all aspects of life, including social relations and networks. Here we use the shell bead assemblage from the cultic-mortuary aggregation site of Kfar HaHoresh, in comparison to shell bead assemblages from multiple other sites in the Levant, as a proxy for the exploration of local and regional networks and connections between PPNB communities. Multivariate analyses of shell bead type distribution patterns across the Levant demonstrate that some types were widely shared among different communities, characterising different geographic regions, while others were rare or unique, highlighting relationships between sites and regions, which are occasionally independent of geographic proximity. Specific occurrences of shared shell bead types between Kfar HaHoresh and compared sites further illuminate the web of connections between PPNB communities in the Levant and the varying breadths of sharingpatterns reflect the hierarchical nature of the underlying social circles. Outlining these widening social affiliations sheds light on the complex structure of Neolithic social identity.

Calcination of an Upper Cretaceous limestone from the Ionian Unit at 700-1100°C for 1-4 hours yielded very reactive lime end products. Lime formation was monitored by means of kinetic curves and TTT diagrams. Particle size seems to control the onset of lime crystallization at low temperatures, but is of minor importance at higher temperatures. With the experimental setting used, lime formation was completed at 900 °C. The specific surface area of the end products increases with firing temperature up to 800 °C, decreasing thereafter. Decrepitation of lime increases gradually with firing temperature. Hydration temperature during slaking increases rapidly up to 900 °C being relatively constant thereafter. Sintering and production of fines during firing control the physical properties of lime.

11 Slosser már hamarabb is a ház tulajdonosa volt. Például 1447-ben vagy 1449-ben két és fél fl. adót szabtak ki rá. Grunczegal/Grunczigalt az első negyed adózójaként evidálták, 1447-ben 1 fl. adót fizetett. Ugyanezt a nevet az Árok/Várfal melletti utcában (fossatum) is feljegyezték, de kiszabott adó nélkül. MMP-K, sign. 2677 (••• realiter persolvit cum effectu cum centum et duobusßorenis trialium alias Banckhart...).

Thema ist die Entwicklung des Interesses, das Kunst- und Architekturhistoriker der Architekturzeichnung entgegengebracht haben. Es beginnt mit den Begriffen zur Architekturzeichnung, die im Vorfeld der Kunstgeschichtsschreibung auftreten, von Italien uber Frankreich bis ins 18. Jahrhundert den deutschen Sprachraum erreichen und im wesentlichen auf die vitruvianischen Begriffe zum Zeichnen basieren. Die eigentliche Geschichtsschreibung der Architekturzeichnung beginnt im Schatten von (Hand-)Zeichnungs- und Architekturgeschichte - ihre Etappen lassen sich jedoch thematisch immer deutlicher fassen und als Leistungen einzelner Kunst- und Architekturhistoriker erkennen. Geschichte und Systematik im Zusammenhang mit idealen Vorstellungen von Architektur kennzeichnen das Werk Heinrichs von Geymuller, dem Pionier der Architekturzeichnungs-Geschichtsschreibung. Eine Geschichte der Architekturzeichnung im Uberblick liefern in fruhen Ansatzen Reginald Blomfield, James Burford und Martin Briggs...

Scant information has surfaced from the (late) medieval period offering insights into the long-forgotten craft of shield-making. Therefore, of particular significance is a document originating from the early 16th century, housed in the collection of the State Archive in Presov (Štátny archív v Prešove). This manuscript, composed in Hungarian language, provides detailed information about Lucas Shieldmaker's personal tools, raw materials, and finished products.
The source published in the appendix not only reveals an unknown sector of the handicraft in Prešov (Eperjes), but when compared with other sources from the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, it offers a remarkably detailed glimpse into the professional toolkit of late medieval shield-making.



Kevés forrás ismert a (késő) középkor időszakából, ami a pajzskészítés mára feledésbe merült mesterségébe nyújt bepillantást. Éppen ezért különös értékkel bír az a 16. század első harmadából származó, az Eperjesi Állami Levéltár (Štátny archív v Prešove) állományában található magyar nyelvű irat, amelyben Pajzsgyártó Lukács saját szerszámairól, alapanyagairól és késztermékeiről rendelkezik.
A függelékben közreadott kútfő nemcsak az eperjesi kézműipar egy eddig ismeretlen ágazatát fedi fel előttünk, hanem a Magyar Királyság területéről származó egyéb forrásokkal egybevetve minden eddiginél részletesebb betekintés nyújt a késő középkori pajzskészítés szakmai eszköztárába.

By concentrating on Paolo Cortesi's discussion of the cardinal's architectural patronage in "De Cardinalatu Libri Tres" (1510), this article shows how Cortesi considered the construction of a sumptuous residence not as a sign of "magnificence" ("magnificentia") but as a necessary operation to establish "dignity" ("dignitas"). Cortesi thus distinguished between the ethical and political-aesthetic dimension of magnificence, defining virtuous patronage in terms of honoring God and being of service, and sumptuous display as a means to acquire authority. This distinction also sheds new light on Cortesi's treatment of the exterior architectural ornament that should be applied to the cardinal's residence.

The Cretaceous shallow marine Gboko limestone, Yandev, Nigeria is a component of the sedimentary fill of the 800 km NE-SW trending Benue Trough, Nigeria. The limestone is made up of thin bedded to massive limestone beds interspersed with laminated grey shale having foraminifera as the dominant fossil. The limestone has both mud supported and grain supported texture, and micrites constitute about 75% of the limestone. Bulk chemical composition analysis of the limestone reveals average CaCO 3 of 92.41% and a range of 77.50%-99.00%. Mineralogical impurities include quartz, dolomite, pyrrhotite, fluorapatite etc. Trace elements concentration analysis was carried out using Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDXRF) spectrophotometry and showed the following trace elements: Mn (841.3 ppm), Sr (444.6 ppm), Fe (470 ppm), Zn (114.6 ppm) and Pb (116.4 ppm). Calcining the limestone in a laboratory muffle furnace at 1050˚C for 90 minutes produced a compact, soft burnt porous and reactive lime that does not crumble into fines. The lime so produced neither meets the requirements of the Steel Making Shop (SMS) of the Ajaokuta Steel Plant nor could it be used in the growing sugar refining industry in Nigeria. It can however be used in the food and the food by-products industry, environmental, agricultural and petroleum industries etc. The raw stone remains a major source of raw materials for cement manufacture for the ever expanding building industry.

Quite a big part of the world's heritage is still made by earth constructions. The durability of the existent heritage, as well as the new earth buildings is particularly conditioned by erosion caused by water action, especially in countries with high rainfall index. With this research one intends to value the ancient knowledge in order to allow higher durability. Analysing the old building techniques to protect the earth material from the water action it is possible to understand how earth buildings were preserved, during several centuries, resisting to harsh weather conditions. Among these techniques, one can observe the incorporation of biopolymers (such as oils or fats of animal or vegetable origin), the addition of some minerals and the stabilization with lime. However, this ancient knowledge seems to have been forgotten, probably due to the existing prejudice concerning earth building which is often associated with a poor construction. This research aims, also, the study of new methods of soil stabilization, with lime and biopolymers, adapting the ancient knowledge to improve the durability related to the water action. This way, alternative solutions were obtained in order to improve the performance of earth buildings in terms of resistance, especially when in contact with water, reducing the water permeability and keeping the vapour permeability of the material, one of the main advantages of earth construction.

Our digital modeling in 3D aims to visualize Neolithic crafted skulls found in the Near East for their preservation and study taking into account both the possibilities of skull deformation in vivo as well as crafting them postmortem. Decapitation and burying or caching human skulls is met already in Palaeolithic contexts. Postmortem cranial crafting by drilling and carving, or modelling with plaster and asphalt using human skulls as basis was practiced in the Near East during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic and Late Neolithic period. The first examples of plastered human skulls were discovered at Jericho in the 1950s, then belonging to Jordan, after which to Israel and now to the Palestinian territories. Similar skulls were later found in various sites in the Near East. The examples digitally reconstructed here include skulls from Göbekli Tepe and Köşk Höyük found in Turkey, from the cave at Nahal Hemar at the Dead Sea in the Judean mountains of Israel and skulls from Jericho in the Palestinian territories. Both drawings and photographs were used in digitally reconstructing the skulls in 3D. The Blender software allowed us to sculpt the complex shape of the skull from a base mesh. Graphic Processing Unit (GPU) rendering sped up rendering thanks to Nvidia graphics cards. UV mapping was carried out for importing the texture. The visualization enabled us to make further anthropological observations. Beside the generally acknowledged Neolithic "skull cult" we also wish briefly to discuss other reasons for the phenomena and practices.

The objective of this research work is to study the absorption and dehydration behavior of some clay-sandy plasters reinforced with natural fibers that could be used for straw bale buildings. The plaster materials consisted of soil, sand and chopped straw. Straw is used as a reinforcement fiber for plaster. Three different types of fibers were used; wheat straw, barley straw and sawdust. The dehydration behavior of plaster materials were tested at three different temperatures, 30, 50 and 70°C. The obtained results showed that, the plaster reinforced with fibers dried slower than that without fibers. However, faster drying caused in cracks of the plaster which is not desirable in building surface coating. The moisture absorption rate increased with increasing fibers content and decreased with increased sand content. Moreover, the highest rate of moisture absorption occurred with the plaster reinforced with sawdust. While, the lowest rate of moisture absorption was achieved with the plaster without reinforcement fibers.