Forest Vegetation Analysis

The distribution and abundance of species can be strongly influenced by habitat suitability. Road construction can change habitat suitability by affecting resources and microclimate. We examined the distribution of tree regeneration and their relationships with forest roads in a temperate forest, Hyrcanian zone, Iran. At six different distances from the verge of forest road (0, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 m), the species abundance and coverage were recorded. The results showed that similar to the regeneration rate, the species richness and abundance are clearly related to the distance from the roads. The effect of the road on species richness and diversity was observed up to 10 m from the road verge. As would be expected, the results revealed that the light demanding species such as Acer velutinum were more frequent in road verges compare to shade tolerant species such as Fagus orientalis. As a conclusion, minimizing road density to keep sections of forest area large enough to conserve diversity and also composition of forest species is necessary for sustainable forest resources.

This report summarizes research into the nature and sources of errors that occur in medium to small scale vegetation maps such as those used for statewide forestry and conservation planning. The objective of this research was to develop a coherent approach and specific methods for quantifying such errors by jointly analyzing ground observations and multiscale map data using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) operations. Section I of the report provides an overview of statistical approaches to assessing cartographic errors, including uncertainty in points, lines, irregular polygons and classified digital imagery. Techniques for assessing point errors and line digitizing errors are relatively well developed. By comparison, much research is still needed on methods for comparing polygon and image data to ground measurements. Another active research front deals with propagation of errors during GIS analyses involving multiple spatial data layers. Also, work is needed to find effective means of transmitting accuracy information to the user of spatial data. Section 2 describes an error analysis of the CALVEG map of vegetation in California. The purpose of the analysis was to demonstrate a variety of approaches to assessing map accuracy, rather than to provide a formal test of the CALVEG map. The map is compared to ground data, U.S. Forest Service photo plots and larger scale timber inventory maps using GIS operations of overlay and spatial analysis. Analyses proceed from contingency table comparisons to analyses of spatial properties of map errors, including spatial autocorrelation, boundary effects, map generalization and association of errors with environmental variables. The tests and their results are summarized in a table at the end of this section. In general, high error rates were documented for the CALVEG map, and these errors were shown to have a number of different sources, most importantly polygon misclassification and map generalization. The report concludes with a series of recommendations to CDF concerning changes in map accuracy assessment procedures. These recommendations pertain to data collection, sampling design, and methods for representing uncertainty in map products. Specific recommendations include the use of enhanced mapping procedures and measures of line quality, withinpolygon heterogeneity and within polygon vegetation texture. Section I of this report provides an overview of methods for determining the accuracy of thematic maps. In Section 2 we demonstrate some of these techniques in an accuracy assessment of conifer classes in the CALVEG map of the vegetation of California. We document the types of errors that occur in the production of digital vegetation maps, including non-random classification errors, boundary errors, errors introduced during digitizing and geometric rectification. Geographic Information System (GIS) operations such as map overlay, buffering, area and distance calculations are used to compare the CALVEG map to more detailed map and field survey data. Section 3 provides a summary of the research and recommends a strategy for assessing the accuracy of vegetation maps derived from remotely sensed data.

California's oak-woodlands are a complex, often multi-layered mosaic of grassland, shrubland, and woodland patches. While soil type and depth, topography, aspect, and geological substrate influence the distribution of these patches, disturbance and biological interactions are also important determinants of the patchy distribution of these plant communities. Fire intensity and frequency can change the structure of these patches, while grazing can affect the speed of the species replacement. Different re-establishment strategies of woody species interacting with prevailing weather following disturbance can also produce changes in the plant community composition at the patch level which are often smaller than a soil mapping unit or an ecological site. While our knowledge of vegetation dynamics in the oak-woodlands is not great, what we do know, or can reasonably hypothesize, is being organized into a format that is sensible and accessible to natural resource managers. State and transition models have been proposed as a format for organizing the complex body of knowledge and concepts describing vegetation dynamics in rangeland ecosystems. Natural and man-caused vegetation change can be incorporated into these models. In this review paper, we will describe oak-woodland vegetation dynamics using a state and transition format.

California's oak-woodlands are a complex, often multi-layered mosaic of grassland, shrubland, and woodland patches. While soil type and depth, topography, aspect, and geological substrate influence the distribution of these patches, disturbance and biological interactions are also important determinants of the patchy distribution of these plant communities. Fire intensity and frequency can change the structure of these patches, while grazing can affect the speed of the species replacement. Different re-establishment strategies of woody species interacting with prevailing weather following disturbance can also produce changes in the plant community composition at the patch level which are often smaller than a soil mapping unit or an ecological site. While our knowledge of vegetation dynamics in the oak-woodlands is not great, what we do know, or can reasonably hypothesize, is being organized into a format that is sensible and accessible to natural resource managers. State and transition models have been proposed as a format for organizing the complex body of knowledge and concepts describing vegetation dynamics in rangeland ecosystems. Natural and man-caused vegetation change can be incorporated into these models. In this review paper, we will describe oak-woodland vegetation dynamics using a state and transition format.

Numerous efforts are underway by public and private groups to assess the status of biodiversity in the state. Most are being conducted at local to subregional scales, and many are focused on species or communities of special concern. Currently lacking is an overview of the protection status of species and communities both statewide and in the western U.S. as a whole. This report describes a geographic information system (GIS) based Gap Analysis of biodiversity in the Southwestern California Ecoregion. The project is part of an ongoing effort by many groups, including the USFWS, the California Department of Fish and Game (CDF&G), Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF&FP), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and others to provide this regional overview by mapping the distributions of plant community types and vertebrate species habitats and relating these distributions to existing patterns of land ownership and land management. The work at UCSB is supported by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the Southern California Edison Company (SCE), and the IBM Environmental Research Program and is part of a national program of state and regional gap analyses being coordinated by the USFWS. The term "Gap Analysis" refers to the evaluation of the protection status of plant communities, animal species and vertebrate species richness by GIS overlay of biological distribution data on a map of existing biological reserves. We are conducting a Gap Analysis of California in collaboration with a number of public and private groups. This entails preparing a statewide map of actual vegetation, supplemented with more detailed locality data for plant taxa of special concern. By compiling a statewide, albeit low resolution digital database, GIS capabilities can be used to identify and map landscapes in California that contain large numbers of potentially unprotected vegetation types and vertebrate species of interest. Such areas can then be studied in more detail as candidates for additional preservation and protection efforts to fill existing "gaps" in the protection network. This approach allows conservationists to be proactive rather than reactive in their efforts to preserve biodiversity. It should also result in fewer conflicts among developers and biologists. Because of the significant differences between parts of California in the ecology, land uses, and data availability, we have chosen to perforrn GIS-based analyses on ecologically-defined subareas of the state. The subdivision we have chosen is the region as defined for the forthcoming revision of the Jepson Manual of California's flora (Hickman, 1993). The Manual delineates ten regions in the state that roughly correspond to the bioregions proposed for state conservation planning. This report is limited to the Southwestern California Region, within the California Floristic Province. The gap analyses of the remaining nine regions will be reported separately as each is completed. Ultimately, a statewide gap analysis will be conducted with the data from the ten regions. The region includes 3,383,160 ha or roughly 8 percent of the area of California and is comprised of three subregions: South Coast, Transverse Ranges, and Peninsular Ranges. The region is bounded by the transition to the Sonoran and Mojave Desert regions on the east and the Santa Ynez Mountains on the north. Land Management: For the purposes of gap analysis, it is necessary to distinguish levels of management in order to determine the protection status of elements of biodiversity. Level 1 represents areas managed for the long-term protection of biodiversity, such as wilderness areas, research natural areas, National Wildlife Refuges, Areas of Critical Environmental Concern, state parks, ecological reserves, and private preserves and sanctuaries. Level 2 includes publicly-owned lands not specifically designated for Level 1 management, while Level 3 contains private lands with no formal management for biodiversity. A 1:100,000 scale management status map depicting these three levels and land ownership was compiled from many sources. Vegetation: A map of actual vegetation was produced using summer 1990 Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery, 1990 high altitude color infrared photography (1:58,000 scale), Vegetation Type Mapping maps based on field surveys conducted between 1928 and 1940, and miscellaneous recent vegetation maps and ground surveys. Landscape boundaries were mapped subjectively by photointerpretation of patterns in the satellite imagery and air photos. Final delineation of a landscape unit was an iterative process based on lines of converging evidence obtained from the various source data. The map was produced using a minimum mapping unit of 100 ha (1 km 2 ), and the region was mapped into some 2,100 landscape units. 230 polygons (excluding urban and agricultural areas) were checked in the field, primarily by roadside reconnaissance. Based on our concept of landscape, we recorded a primary species complex, which was the most widespread vegetation type or land use/land cover type in the polygon, a secondary type, and the fraction of the landscape covered by each type. Each species complex was defined by up to three dominant species. Where possible, we also recorded the occurrence of minor overstory species of special conservation concern (e.g., Juglans californica, Quercus engeltnanii, Cupressus forbesii). Species composition was derived from field survey, air photos or from the VTM maps. VTM information was used for areas where air photos provided no evidence of recent disturbance, based on the assumption that canopy dominants observed by VTM field crews have not changed over the past 50-60 years. We also developed rules for assigning each species combination into Holland's classification of natural communities. We mapped 64 different communities (out of 89 recognized in the region). The premise of Gap Analysis is that biological resources at risk can be identified by their ownership/management profile as generated by GIS overlay of 1: 100,000 scale maps. Based on the profiles of communities already known to be at risk, we adopted the following criteria for identifying communities or dominant plant species at-risk: 1. Less than 10% of the distribution is in Level 1 areas, and the species or community type is endemic to the region, and the mapped distribution covers more than 100 km 2 or 2. over 70% of the mapped distribution is in Level 3 areas. Wildlife Distributions: Combining the California Wildlife Habitat Relationships (WHR) model with the vegetation map generated predicted distribution maps for native vertebrates. We used the WHR database to generate a set of presence/absence tables of species occurring within each of the major habitat types. Another component to the development of a set of predicted distribution maps is using a coarse-scale range map for general locality information. The maps used here are range outlines digitized from a state map at 1:3,500,000 scale and published as part of the VIM system ). The vegetation map was translated into the major habitat types used in the WHR system. The coarse-scale range map was then combined with the medium-scale vegetation map to produce a predicted distribution map for every species. By overlaying the predicted distribution maps with land management status, the proportion of a species' range in various levels of habitat protection was determined. The criteria for highest risk for breeding species whose habitats are rated either medium or high suitability or for migratory species with critical wintering habitat in the region are: 1. Less than 15% of the distribution is in Level I areas, and the species or a subspecies is endemic to the region, and the mapped distribution covers more than 100 km 2 and 2. The species does not find cropland, orchards/vineyards or urban habitats as either medium or high suitability, nor is it exclusively associated with wetlands. The species is not a marine mammal, shorebird, in the chiroptera order, introduced or intensively managed as either a harvest species or being translocated. Land Management: Level 1 areas total 324,773 ha or 9.6 percent of the region. Thirty percent is other public lands managed at Level 2, while the remaining 60 percent is Level 3. The area of level 1 managed areas is dominated by National Forest Wilderness Areas, with 226,185 hectares in 14 areas. State Parks, including Reserves and Wilderness Areas, are the second largest category of Level 1 areas, totaling 56,204 hectares. Lower elevations where most urban and agricultural development are located are predominately private land and therefore Level 3 management. Mid-elevations, between 1500 and 2500 meters are primarily public lands, with about 25 percent being Level 1 management, but most being Level 2. The majority of land above 2500 meters is in Level 1 management, and in fact more than 90 percent of the highest elevation zone is in Level I management (usually National Forest wilderness areas). Vegetation: Based on the GAP criteria, communities restricted largely to the lower elevations , such as nonnative grasslands and the coastal sage scrub types, are at considerable risk (Table ). Roughly 88% of areas below 500 rn are in Level 3 management (i.e. privately owned). A majority of the lands at these elevations have already been converted to agricultural or urban uses and most of the remaining lands are threatened with future urbanization. Especially alarming is the condition of the California black walnut woodlands. The southern variety of this species is endemic to this region and its current distribution is highly fragmented and reduced compared with its original distribution. Sagebrush steppe shrublands, although widespread elsewhere in California, appear vulnerable in this region. A significant proportion of the sagebrush steppe habitat is on Level 2 lands, and conservation concern for these communities can...

Since the 1930s, California’s Sierra Nevada has warmed by an average of 1.2∘C. Warming directly primes forests for easier wildfire ignition, but the change in climate also affects vegetation species composition. Different types of vegetation support unique fire regimes with distinct probabilities of catastrophic wildfire, and anticipating vegetation transitions is an important but undervalued component of long-term wildfire management and adaptation. Vegetation transitions are more likely where the climate has become unsuitable but the species composition remains static. This vegetation climate mismatch (VCM) can result in vegetation conversions, particularly after a disturbance like wildfire. Here we produce estimates of VCM within conifer-dominated forests in the Sierra Nevada. Observations from the 1930s Wieslander Survey provide a foundation for characterizing the historical relationship between Sierra Nevada vegetation and climate before the onset of recent, rapid climate chang...

Proposed causes of the latitudinal-propagule size gradient invoke differences among biome structures or seed dispersal syndromes. Latitudinal seed-size gradients so far have been predominantly investigated using entire floras, prompting the question of whether such trends exist at smaller scales. Here we consider effects of latitude and elevation on fruit size between and within species in Arctostaphylos L. (Ericaceae), a zoochorous, primarily Californian chaparral shrub genus. We measured fruit size, strongly correlated with seed size in Arctostaphylos, in three species of this genus from multiple localities in the Sierra Nevada foothills, and conducted a character analysis of fruit size across the genus using the standard California flora plant manual (Baldwin et al. 2012). Across the genus we found a weak negative correlation between fruit size and latitude (0.0026 mm diameter/km) and a weak positive correlation between fruit size and elevation (1.3 mm diameter/ km). AIC indicates that these trends are not explained by autocorrelation between fruit size and other variables such as maximum plant size. By contrast, intraspecific field data revealed a positive relationship between fruit size and both elevation and latitude. Propagule size gradients within Arctostaphylos oppose those reported for angiosperms globally. This contrast may result from uniformity of fruit structure and animal dispersal, disturbance ecology of chaparral, or local precipitation gradients characteristic of Mediterranean-type climates. Studies of propagule size gradients within taxa can uncover ecological mechanisms behind this trend that remain obscure at global scales.

In 1995, the Manual of California Vegetation introduced a quantitatively based method for classifying and mapping vegetation in California. We used this method to develop a classification of vegetation types for Napa County, which we then used to attribute the polygons of a new vegetation map. The new map was produced by on-screen digitizing over USGS Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quads (DOQQ's) with the aid of ancillary digital maps. We identified the distribution of 56 landcover types, 48 dominated by natural vegetation, at the alliance or aggregated alliance level, in 28,456 polygons across 2042 km 2. The effective minimum mapping unit is below one hectare. The methods used, the mapping classification system developed, and the extents of landcover types mapped are presented. In a comparison with two previous digital vegetation maps for the area, the US Forest Service's CalVeg and the Gap Analysis Program's GAP maps, the MCV map had finer spatial and floristic resolution. The MCV map has 15 more vegetation types than CalVeg and 22 more vegetation types than GAP. The MCV map contains more riparian corridors and isolated wetlands, identifying 157 km 2 of these types, compared to 7 km 2 for CalVeg and a non-spatial result for GAP.

Keeping this species in check at this time will prevent the spread of the species. The banks of the Stanislaus River are prime habitat for this species and may be a focal point for control. Carduus pycnocephalus (Italian Thistle) Cal-IPC List B. Carduus pycnocephalus is an annual thistle, introduced from the Mediterranean with reports of its occurrence as early as 1912 (Bossard et al. 2000). It is widespread in the grasslands and oak woodlands within the study area. It is considered less invasive than some other species of thistle but once established it can come to dominate a site. It is the most abundant of the exotic thistles within the study area. It was found in 30 associations, ranging in absolute cover from <1% to as high as 40%. Control may center on identifying those areas of heaviest infestation. Research of the literature seems to indicate that mechanical control and grazing are the most effective methods. Treatment, however, requires being persistent over a period of several years. Centaurea melitensis (Maltese Star-thistle) Cal-IPC List B Centaurea melitensis is an annual thistle, first introduced to California during the Spanish mission period. Dense infestations can displace native plants and animals (Bossard et al. 2000). Though placed on Cal-IPC List B, it is noted that this species may be more widespread than realized. It is often mistaken for C. solstitialis. The plant can be toxic to horses if ingested over long periods. Little work has focused on the control of C. melitensis with more focus given to C. solstitialis. With similar life-forms and habit, control methods used for C. solstitialis may be effective on C. melitensis (Bossard et al. 2000). Control may center on identifying those areas of heaviest infestation. It is the second most abundant of the exotic thistle species. It occurs in 24 associations ranging in absolute cover from <1% to as high as 20%. Centaurea solstitialis (Yellow Star-thistle) Cal-IPC-List A-2 Centaurea solstitialis is considered one of the most noxious weeds in the state. It can form dense impenetrable stands diminishing the quality of rangelands and displacing other vegetation. It has spread rapidly since the mid-1900s and has come to infest 15-20 million acres throughout California. It is believed to have begun invading the Sierra foothills in the 1930s and 1940s (The Nature Conservancy 2004). Like C. melitensis, the plant is toxic to horses. 5000-Deciduous Shrubland 5400-Winter Rain Drought Deciduous Shrubland 5401-Poison Oak Alliance 5500-Seasonally Flooded Deciduous Shrubland 5501-Mixed Riparian Shrub Mapping Unit (including Salix spp., Calycanthus occidentalis, Rhamnus tomentella, etc) 6000-Perennial Herbaceous (Graminoid-Forbs) 6100-Bunch Forming Grasses 6101-Serpentine Native Wet Perennial Grassland (Hordeum brachyantherum, Carex spp., Juncus spp.

Questions: Has tree density changed consistently across vegetation types? Do changes in component species correspond with changes across vegetation types? Do patterns of changes suggest potential drivers of change? Location: Northern two-thirds of the Sierra Nevada, CA, USA, ca. 45 000 km 2. Methods: Using two data sets that cover the span of elevations and land jurisdictions in the study area, we classified 4321 historical plots and 1000 modern plots into nine broad groups of vegetation types that are widely used by land managers and researchers in the region. We compared tree density and composition between historical and modern plots across and within these nine types. Results: In the modern data set, tree density was significantly higher in eight of nine vegetation types. Total density was significantly higher in modern plots for all west slope types, especially for montane hardwood, where modern forests are 128% denser, and mixed conifer forests, which are 69% denser. Relative density of component species was also very different between data sets in these forests, and suggests a shift in dominance toward shade-tolerant conifers and evergreen oaks. Fire suppression is likely a driving factor in these types but density was also significantly higher in high-elevation types such as sub-alpine forest (+20%), where neither fire suppression nor logging have had major impacts on structure. East slope forest types (eastside P. jeffreyi forest and piñon-juniper woodland) were very similar in both modern and historical data sets, with no significant differences in density or composition. Conclusion: West slope forest types, especially montane hardwood and mixed conifer forest, appear the most altered types of the mountain range. These types are more productive but have also been subject to greater disturbance than high-elevation and east slope forest types. Climate change may also be driving changes across the study area. Species such as Quercus chrysolepis and Calocedrus decurrens, which have each increased markedly in abundance, appear well positioned to dominate in the near future, especially under continued fire suppression and a warmer climate.

Stands of montane chaparral are an integral component of the mixed conifer forest in the Cascade Mountains of northern California. In this region, chaparral stands found on sites that could support trees are thought to have established following high severity fire. The exclusion of fire for over a century may have allowed trees to invade chaparral. The conversion of chaparral to forest has reduced chaparral in the mixed conifer landscape. This study investigated the timing and spatial dynamics of chaparral and tree establishment in six chaparral stands in Lassen Volcanic National Park, California. Findings include that the oldest chaparral established after a fire event and were older than most trees in the stand. The chaparral were multi-aged, indicating continued resprouting in the absence of fire. Tree density (trees hectare-1) was higher closer to the forest edge than further into the chaparral, suggesting gradual tree invasion from the forest. Pinus jeffreyi were older at the f...

Proposed causes of the latitudinal-propagule size gradient invoke differences among biome structures or seed dispersal syndromes. Latitudinal seed-size gradients so far have been predominantly investigated using entire floras, prompting the question of whether such trends exist at smaller scales. Here we consider effects of latitude and elevation on fruit size between and within species in Arctostaphylos L. (Ericaceae), a zoochorous, primarily Californian chaparral shrub genus. We measured fruit size, strongly correlated with seed size in Arctostaphylos, in three species of this genus from multiple localities in the Sierra Nevada foothills, and conducted a character analysis of fruit size across the genus using the standard California flora plant manual (Baldwin et al. 2012). Across the genus we found a weak negative correlation between fruit size and latitude (0.0026 mm diameter/km) and a weak positive correlation between fruit size and elevation (1.3 mm diameter/ km). AIC indicates that these trends are not explained by autocorrelation between fruit size and other variables such as maximum plant size. By contrast, intraspecific field data revealed a positive relationship between fruit size and both elevation and latitude. Propagule size gradients within Arctostaphylos oppose those reported for angiosperms globally. This contrast may result from uniformity of fruit structure and animal dispersal, disturbance ecology of chaparral, or local precipitation gradients characteristic of Mediterranean-type climates. Studies of propagule size gradients within taxa can uncover ecological mechanisms behind this trend that remain obscure at global scales.

Seedling establishment is a critical step that may ultimately govern tree species' distribution shifts under environmental change. Annual variation in the location of seed rain and microclimates results in transient "windows of opportunity" for tree seedling establishment across the landscape. These establishment windows vary at fine spatiotemporal scales that are not considered in most assessments of climate change impacts on tree species range dynamics and habitat displacement. We integrate field seedling establishment trials conducted in the southern Sierra Nevada and western Tehachapi Mountains of southern California with spatially downscaled grids of modeled water-year climatic water deficit (CWD wy) and mean August maximum daily temperature (T max) to map historical and projected future microclimates suitable for establishment windows of opportunity for Quercus douglasii, a dominant tree species of warm, dry foothill woodlands, and Q. kelloggii, a dominant of cooler, more mesic montane woodlands and forests. Based on quasi-binomial regression models, Q. douglasii seedling establishment is significantly associated with modeled CWD wy and to a lesser degree with modeled T max. Q. kelloggii seedling establishment is most strongly associated with T max and best predicted by a two-factor model including CWD wy and T max. Establishment niche models are applied to explore recruitment window dynamics in the western Tehachapi Mountains, where these species are currently widespread canopy dominants. Establishment windows are projected to decrease by 50-95%, shrinking locally to higher elevations and north-facing slopes by the end of this century depending on the species and climate scenario. These decreases in establishment windows suggest the potential for longer-term regional population declines of the species. While many additional processes regulate seedling establishment and growth, this study highlights the need to account for topoclimatic controls and interannual climatic variation when assessing how seedling establishment and colonization processes could be affected by climate change.

Research Forester, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Riverside, Calif. Abstract: Vegetation classification in California is evolving rapidly. Broad-brush classes generated by resource management functions and ecologists are not suitable for many current needs. A new California system for vegetation classification fills many current needs for communication between disciplines and for linking existing classification systems.

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Keeping this species in check at this time will prevent the spread of the species. The banks of the Stanislaus River are prime habitat for this species and may be a focal point for control. Carduus pycnocephalus (Italian Thistle) Cal-IPC List B. Carduus pycnocephalus is an annual thistle, introduced from the Mediterranean with reports of its occurrence as early as 1912 (Bossard et al. 2000). It is widespread in the grasslands and oak woodlands within the study area. It is considered less invasive than some other species of thistle but once established it can come to dominate a site. It is the most abundant of the exotic thistles within the study area. It was found in 30 associations, ranging in absolute cover from <1% to as high as 40%. Control may center on identifying those areas of heaviest infestation. Research of the literature seems to indicate that mechanical control and grazing are the most effective methods. Treatment, however, requires being persistent over a period of several years. Centaurea melitensis (Maltese Star-thistle) Cal-IPC List B Centaurea melitensis is an annual thistle, first introduced to California during the Spanish mission period. Dense infestations can displace native plants and animals (Bossard et al. 2000). Though placed on Cal-IPC List B, it is noted that this species may be more widespread than realized. It is often mistaken for C. solstitialis. The plant can be toxic to horses if ingested over long periods. Little work has focused on the control of C. melitensis with more focus given to C. solstitialis. With similar life-forms and habit, control methods used for C. solstitialis may be effective on C. melitensis (Bossard et al. 2000). Control may center on identifying those areas of heaviest infestation. It is the second most abundant of the exotic thistle species. It occurs in 24 associations ranging in absolute cover from <1% to as high as 20%. Centaurea solstitialis (Yellow Star-thistle) Cal-IPC-List A-2 Centaurea solstitialis is considered one of the most noxious weeds in the state. It can form dense impenetrable stands diminishing the quality of rangelands and displacing other vegetation. It has spread rapidly since the mid-1900s and has come to infest 15-20 million acres throughout California. It is believed to have begun invading the Sierra foothills in the 1930s and 1940s (The Nature Conservancy 2004). Like C. melitensis, the plant is toxic to horses. 5000-Deciduous Shrubland 5400-Winter Rain Drought Deciduous Shrubland 5401-Poison Oak Alliance 5500-Seasonally Flooded Deciduous Shrubland 5501-Mixed Riparian Shrub Mapping Unit (including Salix spp., Calycanthus occidentalis, Rhamnus tomentella, etc) 6000-Perennial Herbaceous (Graminoid-Forbs) 6100-Bunch Forming Grasses 6101-Serpentine Native Wet Perennial Grassland (Hordeum brachyantherum, Carex spp., Juncus spp.

In 1995, the Manual of California Vegetationintroduced a quantitatively based method for classifying and mapping vegetation in California. We used this method to develop a classification of vegetation types for Napa County, which we then used to attribute the polygons of a new vegetation map. The new map was produced by on-screen digitizing over USGS Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quads (DOQQ’s) with the aid of ancillary digital maps. We identified the distribution of 56 landcover types, 48 dominated by natural vegetation, at the alliance or aggregated alliance level, in 28,456 polygons across 2042 km 2 . The effective minimum mapping unit is below one hectare. The methods used, the mapping classification system developed, and the extents of landcover types mapped are presented. In a comparison with two previous digital vegetation maps for the area, the US Forest Service’s CalVeg and the Gap Analysis Program’s GAP maps, the MCV map had finer spatial and floristic resolution. The MCV map...

Project goals: o To create an accurate high-resolution vegetation map for the preserve that defines spatial units of vegetation alliances defined by the dominant plant species present. o To advance our understanding of how variations in soils, topography, and climate influence plant species distributions and vegetation community structure across the preserve today. o To provide a vegetation baseline against which change in vegetation species composition, distribution, or structure may be compared in the future and as part of the TBC3 2.2 Establishment of Woodland Vegetation Research Plots Project (Ackerly et al. 2013). Why this is important: Vegetation is a primary indicator of ecosystem structure and function. In order to manage a property well managers need an accurate map of the spatial patterns of vegetation to define site-specific vegetation management practices. For scientific purposes, our goal is to determine why certain vegetation species colonize one region and not another. Preliminary models (Cornwell et al. 2012) suggest that climate, soil, and hydrology are key drivers of vegetation distribution. As the climate changes, patterns of vegetation distribution are also likely to change. In order to adaptively manage a conservation land parcel like Pepperwood, we need this data to create hypotheses about how vegetation at Pepperwood may shift in response to environmental drivers. We aim to revise this map periodically to accurately measure change in vegetation distribution on the preserve over time. Project overview: Critical steps include: 1) a digital aerial photography analysis using a Geographic Information System (GIS) and the eCognition (Trimble 2012) software package to delineate a preliminary set of vegetation polygons based on vegetation image signature (color and texture); 2) a ground-truthing process, entailing field data collection by biologists to verify species present and to refine the mapped polygon designations; and, 3) aerial and field data integration, to compile both categories of data into one Access database as a basis for future spatial and temporal analyses. The attached Technical Report summarizes the methods and results of Pepperwood's 2012-13 vegetation mapping project. Project impact: The objective of this vegetation mapping project was to support the development and implementation of a field-based measurement system capable of monitoring vegetation communities in transition, which will be summarized in a companion report. These two projects taken together provide a basis for further advancing our understanding of topo-and micro-climate influences on vegetation distributions and habitat structure. An outcome of these projects is to apply results to vegetation management priorities of the Conservation Lands Network (BAOSC 2011) in the San Francisco Bay Area. Project support: Creating a Detailed Vegetation Map for Pepperwood Preserve is a product of Task 2.2.1 pursuant to TBC3 Output 2.2 under Grant # 2861 of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation titled "Applied Science for Bay Area Conservation and Climate Adaptation." Related projects: Complementary tasks include: 1) creating a detailed topoclimate model of the preserve calibrated using spatially-distributed temperature sensors, 2) creating a high-resolution Basin Characterization Model defining spatially-distributed water balance parameters, and 3) completing detailed analyses that relate observed vegetation distributions to climate and hydrology parameters. In addition to these analyses the project team has established a set of 50 long-term woody vegetation monitoring plots designed to capture changes in community structure and species composition in response to changes in microclimatic conditions (see companion report TBC3 2.2 Establishment of woodland vegetation research plots at Pepperwood Preserve by Ackerly, et al. 2013).

Many scientific disciplines need to locate, digitize, and integrate the collections of historical ecological data that often remain hidden in paper archives. Synthesizing historical and contemporary ecological data with ecosystem models can help researchers understand how species, communities, and landscapes are changing across space and time. Since these data are often stored in multiple collections and in various formats, data integration can be challenging. This paper presents a case study of the digitization of a large historical vegetation survey, i.e., the Wieslander Vegetation Type Mapping (VTM) project in California which highlights the importance of recovering and sharing such datasets. The protocol developed to digitize, georeference, visualize, and share these data is founded in geospatial concepts, and the VTM project showcases the increasingly important role of geospatial experts in the fields of ecology, history, and other sciences. These methods are flexible, transferable and broadly applicable to other fields.

Keeping this species in check at this time will prevent the spread of the species. The banks of the Stanislaus River are prime habitat for this species and may be a focal point for control. Carduus pycnocephalus (Italian Thistle) Cal-IPC List B. Carduus pycnocephalus is an annual thistle, introduced from the Mediterranean with reports of its occurrence as early as 1912 (Bossard et al. 2000). It is widespread in the grasslands and oak woodlands within the study area. It is considered less invasive than some other species of thistle but once established it can come to dominate a site. It is the most abundant of the exotic thistles within the study area. It was found in 30 associations, ranging in absolute cover from <1% to as high as 40%. Control may center on identifying those areas of heaviest infestation. Research of the literature seems to indicate that mechanical control and grazing are the most effective methods. Treatment, however, requires being persistent over a period of several years. Centaurea melitensis (Maltese Star-thistle) Cal-IPC List B Centaurea melitensis is an annual thistle, first introduced to California during the Spanish mission period. Dense infestations can displace native plants and animals (Bossard et al. 2000). Though placed on Cal-IPC List B, it is noted that this species may be more widespread than realized. It is often mistaken for C. solstitialis. The plant can be toxic to horses if ingested over long periods. Little work has focused on the control of C. melitensis with more focus given to C. solstitialis. With similar life-forms and habit, control methods used for C. solstitialis may be effective on C. melitensis (Bossard et al. 2000). Control may center on identifying those areas of heaviest infestation. It is the second most abundant of the exotic thistle species. It occurs in 24 associations ranging in absolute cover from <1% to as high as 20%. Centaurea solstitialis (Yellow Star-thistle) Cal-IPC-List A-2 Centaurea solstitialis is considered one of the most noxious weeds in the state. It can form dense impenetrable stands diminishing the quality of rangelands and displacing other vegetation. It has spread rapidly since the mid-1900s and has come to infest 15-20 million acres throughout California. It is believed to have begun invading the Sierra foothills in the 1930s and 1940s (The Nature Conservancy 2004). Like C. melitensis, the plant is toxic to horses. 5000-Deciduous Shrubland 5400-Winter Rain Drought Deciduous Shrubland 5401-Poison Oak Alliance 5500-Seasonally Flooded Deciduous Shrubland 5501-Mixed Riparian Shrub Mapping Unit (including Salix spp., Calycanthus occidentalis, Rhamnus tomentella, etc) 6000-Perennial Herbaceous (Graminoid-Forbs) 6100-Bunch Forming Grasses 6101-Serpentine Native Wet Perennial Grassland (Hordeum brachyantherum, Carex spp., Juncus spp.

In 1995, the Manual of California Vegetationintroduced a quantitatively based method for classifying and mapping vegetation in California. We used this method to develop a classification of vegetation types for Napa County, which we then used to attribute the polygons of a new vegetation map. The new map was produced by on-screen digitizing over USGS Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quads (DOQQ’s) with the aid of ancillary digital maps. We identified the distribution of 56 landcover types, 48 dominated by natural vegetation, at the alliance or aggregated alliance level, in 28,456 polygons across 2042 km 2 . The effective minimum mapping unit is below one hectare. The methods used, the mapping classification system developed, and the extents of landcover types mapped are presented. In a comparison with two previous digital vegetation maps for the area, the US Forest Service’s CalVeg and the Gap Analysis Program’s GAP maps, the MCV map had finer spatial and floristic resolution. The MCV map...

The aim of the presented research is to improve the understanding of vegetation roughness and to determine an appropriate way for including vegetation resistance in hydraulic models used for spatial planning or maintenance of river floodplains. Before the hydraulic effects of vegetation is studied an overview is given of open channel flows and the associated resistance effects (chapter 2). Next, as an analogy to flow through vegetation, the flow resistance due to rigid cylinders is investigated (chapter 3 and 4). Two different methods to describe the average flow field in such situations are demonstrated: a depth-integrated vertical velocity profile (Klopstra et al. 1997) and a new bulk description where the average flow field is estimated as based on turbulent energy considerations and a simple force balance. The two methods are compared to one another and also to independent results from flume experiments (chapter 5). The properties of the two methods are discussed and preliminary recommendations are given on the appropriate treatment of vegetation effects in hydraulic models used for river management. A follow-up study in 2006 will focus on uncertainties involved with these issues. The help and comments of several people were of great support in the realization of this work. We would like to thank Volker Hüsing, Anne Wijbenga, Paul Termes, Detlef Lohse, Francisco Fontanele, Suzanne Hulscher, Wim Uijttewaal and Martin Baptist for their critical remarks, contributions of information or data, and pushes in the right direction.

In 1995, the Manual of California Vegetation introduced a quantitatively based method for classifying and mapping vegetation in California. We used this method to develop a classification of vegetation types for Napa County, which we then used to attribute the polygons of a new vegetation map. The new map was produced by on-screen digitizing over USGS Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quads (DOQQ's) with the aid of ancillary digital maps. We identified the distribution of 56 landcover types, 48 dominated by natural vegetation, at the alliance or aggregated alliance level, in 28,456 polygons across 2042 km 2. The effective minimum mapping unit is below one hectare. The methods used, the mapping classification system developed, and the extents of landcover types mapped are presented. In a comparison with two previous digital vegetation maps for the area, the US Forest Service's CalVeg and the Gap Analysis Program's GAP maps, the MCV map had finer spatial and floristic resolution. The MCV map has 15 more vegetation types than CalVeg and 22 more vegetation types than GAP. The MCV map contains more riparian corridors and isolated wetlands, identifying 157 km 2 of these types, compared to 7 km 2 for CalVeg and a non-spatial result for GAP.

We present a method for computerizing the transition rules of a state-and-transition model and then linking this model to a geographic information system. The resulting simulation characterizes rangeland vegetation dynamics in space and time. The method makes use of an expert system, a computer program that forms logical chains of transition rules. Simulation using state-and-transition rules, sometimes called qualitative simulation, has the disadvantage that it is less precise than traditional numerical simulation. However, it may have the advantage of being able to generate more robust simulation of complex vegetation communities. We demonstrate the application of the method by constructing a model of hardwood rangeland in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada. The model is tested by comparison with historic black-andwhite aerial photographs. The model is found to agree generally with the observed data but to differ substantially in some locations. Implications of this difference are discussed.

Historical topographic maps are the only systematically collected data resource covering the entire nation for long-term landscape change studies over the 20 th century for geographical and environmental research. The paper discusses aspects of the historical U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps that present constraints on the design of a database for such studies. Problems involved in this approach include locating the required maps, understanding land feature classification differences between topographic vs. land use/land cover maps, the approximation of error between different map editions of the same area, and the identification of true changes on the landscape between time periods. Suggested approaches to these issues are illustrated using an example of such a study by the author.

In large-area mapping projects, existing reference data, often collected for a different purpose, are increasingly being used for map accuracy assessment. Multiattribute digital vegetation maps have been developed for all National Forest lands in California (8.1 million ha). We developed decision rules that could be applied to quantitative Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) plot data in order to score the fuzzy membership of plot locations in all possible map classes. We compare the accuracy of the vegetation map attributes estimated using this method to accuracy estimated from fuzzy class membership scores assigned by experts (inventory crews) during field work. Accuracy of the vegetation life form attribute was estimated to be higher when expert label assignments were used as reference data (76±87%), instead of FIA plot data (62±79%). This suggests that automated decision rules applied to detailed data from FIA plots, which have smaller area Transactions in GIS, 2001, 5(4): 285±304 ß 2001 Blackwell Publishers, than map polygons, may systematically underestimate map accuracy. However, assignment of the actual map labels to FIA plot locations by inventory crews appears to be a robust method for using the FIA data for accuracy assessment.

We present a method for computerizing the transition rules of a state-and-transition model and then linking this model to a geographic information system. The resulting simulation characterizes rangeland vegetation dynamics in space and time. The method makes use of an expert system, a computer program that forms logical chains of transition rules. Simulation using state-and-transition rules, sometimes called qualitative simulation, has the disadvantage that it is less precise than traditional numerical simulation. However, it may have the advantage of being able to generate more robust simulation of complex vegetation communities. We demonstrate the application of the method by constructing a model of hardwood rangeland in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada. The model is tested by comparison with historic black-andwhite aerial photographs. The model is found to agree generally with the observed data but to differ substantially in some locations. Implications of this difference are discussed.

Vegetation analysis is a way to find out how much the distribution of various species in an area through direct observation. Performed by making 3 plots and observing the morphology and identification of existing vegetation. In this study used is the quadrant method, which is one method that does not use plotless methods. This method is very good for estimating community-shaped trees, for example forest vegetation. The study was conducted on October 13, 2018. The purpose of this study was to determine the biodiversity and structure of vegetation (frequency, density, dominance, and Important Value Index) in the Natural Kandung area of Tulungagung Regency. The results of the study showed that there were 5 types of herbaceous plants in the Natural Kandung District of Tulungagung Regency, Cajanus Cajan (L) Millsp, Arthraxon H Ispidus, Flemingia Macrophylla, Glycine Soja, Mitchella Repens with a Total Important Value Index (INP). ) 300% with the relative value of relati, relative humidity, and the relative frequency of 100% each. The relative density of the highest relative density is Arthraxon H Ispidus which is equal to 95.34883721%, while the lowest density herbaceous species are Cajanus Cajan (L) Millsp, Flemingia Macrophylla, Glycine Soja, Mitchella Repens. The largest relative hoarding is Arthraxon H Ispidus which is equal to 95.34883721 and the lowest is Cajanus Cajan (L) Millsp, Flemingia Macrophylla, Glycine Soja, Mitchella Repens. The highest relative frequency was Arthraxon H Ispidus which was 42.857714286%, and Cajanus Cajan (L) Millsp, Flemingia Macrophylla, Glycine Soja, Mitchella Repens. And the highest INP was Arthraxon H Ispidus 233.5548173% while those with the lowest INP were Cajanus Cajan (L) Millsp, Flemingia Macrophylla, Glycine Soja, Mitchella Repens. The high value of INP indicates that these types can adapt to the surrounding environment better than other types.

Kashmir Valley located in the northwestern folds of the Indian Himalayas, has vast land area (16%) under grasslands which play an important role in providing economic goods and ecosystem services to the society. Livestock, particularly the migratory flocks, are entirely dependent on these grasslands. They serve as bedrock for sustaining the core economic activity of livestock rearing in the region. Apart from sustaining this pivotal economic activity, grasslands harbor a rich and endemic biodiversity, and regulate the regional carbon, nutrient and hydrological cycles (Masood, 2003; Anonymous, 2014). The present investigation was conducted at protected site of Yousmarag area of Budgam district in Jammu and Kashmir, India during 2014-2015 with the aim to study the effect of grazing on floristic composition of selected site. The data pertaining to protected area (Kanidajan) revealed the presence of thirty six herb species in spring season, the highest density was shown by Cynodon dactylon (363300 ha-1), maximum frequency was observed by Achillea mill folium, and highest abundance was reported in Cynodon dactylon (363300 ha-1). It is evident from the data that out of the thirty six herbaceous species a total of thirty four were recorded in summer season, the highest density was shown by Cynodon dactylon, the maximum frequency (100%) was observed in Achillea mill folium, and maximum abundance was reported in Cynodon dactylon (448300 ha-1). A total of twenty species were found in autumn season amongst the thirty six species reported at this site. Maximum density was again recorded in Cynodon dactylon (215800 ha-1), maximum frequency (100%) was recorded in Cynodon dactylon and highest abundance was reported in Cynodon dactylon. In all three seasons, it was observed that Cynodon dactylon (37.43ha-1) had maximum importance value index (IVI).

The paper deals with the distribution of medicinal and ornamental plants in VIT University, Vellore. We have done a survey on biodiversity of medicinal and ornamental plants inside the VIT University Vellore. We collected plant samples as well as took the photograph of all the plants, which we found in our campus. The plant species were identified with the help of a botanist. We classified them as medicinal and ornamental plants. These medicinal and ornamental plants, further classified as herbs, shrubs, trees, cactus, house plant, creepers/climbers and we have given them a unique code. There are 80 medicinal plants belonging to 42 families and 43 ornamental plants belonging to 26 families among which few were used for their commercial values. We have also studied few exotic plant species native to other countries which have been successfully grown in VIT University. The biodiversity conservation in and around VIT University has been discussed in the paper.

One-foot resolution imagery is used to develop a detailed land cover map for part of Highway 99 in the San Joaquin Valley of California, US. The land cover map is used to model the probability of occurrence of 12 endangered or threatened species and as input to an urban growth model to examine the likelihood of development of every map unit. The combination of the two model predictions permits the categorization of every map unit with a potential endangered species richness index and predicted degree of development. Polygons with high potential endangered species richness were ranked according to the degree of development pressure. This planning approach is computationally intensive, but the input data are relatively easy to assemble, consisting of: a detailed, and fine-scale, land cover map; species presence locations; statewide climate and landcover maps; a parcel ownership map; population growth projections; and a digital map of the county general plan.

This report summarizes research into the nature and sources of errors that occur in medium to small scale vegetation mapssuch as those used for statewide forestry and conservation planning. The objective of this research was to develop a coherent approachand specific methods for quantifying such errors by jointly analyzing ground observations and multiscale map data using GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) operations. Section I of the report provides an overview of statistical approaches to assessing cartographic errors, including ...

The landscape of central Arizona U.S.A. is characterized by a patchy distribution of three major vegetation types: chaparral, woodland and grassland. Disturbance is common in the landscape, primarily livestock grazing, fire and conversion (i.e., removal of woody plants to increase forage for livestock). The purposes of this research were to determine changes in the landscape mosaic of central Arizona between 1940 and 1989 and to predict future changes. Using aerial photographs from 1940, 1968 and 1989 and digital overlays followed by transition matrix analysis, we found that chaparral and its adjacent grassland had changed less than woodland and its grassland. However, both had nearly equal projected stabilization times. Moreover, disturbance increased time for stabilization and some results were scale-dependent.

The National Park Service Vegetation Inventory Program funded an effort, beginning in 2009, to classify and map the vegetation at Oregon Caves National Monument and its proposed expansion area (inclusive of the headwaters of Cave and Lake Creeks). Southern Oregon University staff performed the inventory work. The Klamath Network, Inventory and Monitoring Program coordinated the effort. To classify the vegetation, we sampled 142 representative classification plots throughout the 1,820.8 hectare (4,499.3 acre) project area using traditional phytosociological methods (i.e., relevé sampling). The relevé plots were located and sampled primarily in 2009 and 2010. We identified 397 different vascular plant species in the classification plots, including many that were not previously recorded on the monument’s species list. We classified the plot data into 34 plant associations using accepted statistical analyses. A key to the plant associations and description of each association are provid...

Historical ecological data are valuable for reconstructing early environmental and vegetation community conditions and examining change to vegetation communities and disturbance regimes over decadal and longer temporal scales, but these data are not free from error. We examine the spatial uncertainties associated with 18,000 vegetation plots in the decades-old California Vegetation Type Mapping (VTM) dataset that has been digitized for use in modern ecological analysis. We examine the relationship between plot location error and basemap year, basemap scale, plot elevation, plot slope, and general plot habitat type. Bivariate plots and classification and regression tree analysis (CART) confirm that basemap scale and age are the strongest explanation of total error. Total error in spatial location for all plots ranged from 126.9 m to 462.3 m; plots drawn on 15-min (1:62,500-scale) basemaps had total error ranging from 126 m to 199.7 m, and plots drawn on coarser-scale basemaps (1:125,000-scale) had total errors ranging from 241 m to 461.2 m. Relocation of individual VTM plots is considerably easier for plots originally marked on 1:62,500-scale maps produced after 1904, and more difficult for plots originally marked on 1:125,000-scale maps produced before 1898. Biogeographical analyses that rely less on relocating individual plots, such as environmental niche modeling or multivariate analyses can alleviate some of these concerns, but all researchers using these kinds of data need to consider errors in spatial location of plots. The paper also discusses ways in which the differing spatial error might be reported and visualized by those using the dataset, and how the data might be used in modern environmental niche models.

... Ecology 37:754–768. CrossRef. Bradbury, D. 1974. Vegetation history of the Ramona quadrangle, San Diego County, California (1931–1972) Ph.D. dissertation. University of California. Los Angeles, CA. Buisseret, D. 1990. ... Maggi Kelly, Ken-ichi Ueda, Barbara Allen-Diaz. ...

Vegetation structure, composition, and community patterns on the landscape of southwest Oregon have changed since Euro-American settlement began in the mid-1800s. Much of this change has been attributed to the transition of land management strategies from those dominated by Native American practices, through the early Euro-American settlement period, and on to the post World War II era of industrial scale timber harvest and fire suppression. Using homestead patent applications and associated land classification maps generated under the Forest Reserve Homestead Act of June 11, 1906, we add to the understanding of historic vegetation conditions and evaluate vegetation change over time for land applied for by homesteaders in the Applegate River watershed of southwest Oregon. These homesteads were predominately located on areas now supporting chaparral, Pinus and/ or Quercus woodlands, mixed conifer forests, pastures, and agricultural land. Our study presents primary source documentation that describes stands dominated by broadleaf trees and shrubs as dense at the time of patent application, contrary to the assumption that such stand structures are an artifact of fire suppression efforts of the last century. Historic vegetation polygons cross tabulated with current classified imagery in GIS indicate that conifer forests and shrublands each retain most of their former extents within their same locations on the landscape. The persistence of shrub stands to current times implies longer-term stability of these communities and indicates that a transition to conifer domination is not evident in all shrublands.

One-foot resolution imagery is used to develop a detailed land cover map for part of Highway 99 in the San Joaquin Valley of California, US. The land cover map is used to model the probability of occurrence of 12 endangered or threatened species and as input to an urban growth model to examine the likelihood of development of every map unit. The combination of the two model predictions permits the categorization of every map unit with a potential endangered species richness index and predicted degree of development. Polygons with high potential endangered species richness were ranked according to the degree of development pressure. This planning approach is computationally intensive, but the input data are relatively easy to assemble, consisting of: a detailed, and fine-scale, land cover map; species presence locations; statewide climate and landcover maps; a parcel ownership map; population growth projections; and a digital map of the county general plan.